Unlike Freud and Jung, E. Fromm did not have a medical education. He studied psychology, sociology and philosophy. He sought to expand the horizons of psychoanalytic theory, emphasizing the role of sociological, political, economic, religious and anthropological factors in the formation of personality. His interpretation of personality begins with an analysis of the human conditions and their changes, from the beginning and end of the Middle Ages (late 15th century) to our time. At the end of his historical analysis, Erich Fromm concluded that an integral feature of human existence in our time is loneliness, isolation and alienation. At the same time, he believed that each historical period was characterized by the progressive development of individuality as people struggled to achieve greater personal freedom to develop all their potentialities. However, much of the autonomy and freedom of choice that people living in modern Western society enjoy has come at the cost of a loss of overall security and a sense of personal unworthiness. In Fromm's view, today's men and women face a painful dilemma. Unprecedented freedom from strict social, political, economic and religious restrictions (as is the case today in American culture) required compensation in the form of a sense of security and a sense of belonging to society. Fromm believed that this the gap between freedom and security has caused unprecedented difficulties in human existence. People fight for freedom and autonomy, but this very struggle causes a feeling of alienation from nature and society. People need to have power over their lives and to have choices, but they also need to feel united and connected to other people. The intensity of this conflict and the methods of its resolution depend, according to Fromm, on the economic and political systems of societies. How do people overcome the feelings of loneliness, unworthiness and alienation that accompany freedom? One way is to give up freedom and suppress your individuality. Fromm described several strategies people use to “escape from freedom.” The first of these is authoritarianism, defined as “the tendency to unite oneself with someone or something external in order to regain the power lost by the individual self.” Authoritarianism manifests itself in both masochistic and sadistic tendencies. In the masochistic form of authoritarianism, people show excessive dependence, subordination and helplessness in relationships with others. The sadistic form, on the contrary, is expressed in the exploitation of others, domination and control over them. Fromm argued that both tendencies are usually present in the same individual. For example, in a highly authoritarian military structure, a person may voluntarily obey the commands of senior officers and humiliate or brutally exploit subordinates. The second way of escape is destructiveness. Following this tendency, a person tries to overcome feelings of inferiority by destroying or conquering others. According to Fromm, duty, patriotism and love are common examples of the rationalization of destructive actions.
Finally, people can overcome loneliness and alienation through absolute obedience to social norms governing behavior. Term automaton conformity Fromm applied to a person who uses this strategy, thanks to which he becomes absolutely like everyone else and behaves in a generally accepted way. “The individual ceases to be himself; he turns into the type of personality required by the cultural model, and therefore becomes absolutely like others - the way they want him to be.” Fromm believed that such a loss of individuality was firmly rooted in the social character of most modern people. Like animals with protective coloration, people with automaton conformity become indistinguishable from their surroundings. They share the same values, pursue the same career goals, purchase the same products, and think and feel like almost everyone in their culture.
According to Fromm, in contrast to the three listed mechanisms of escape from freedom, there is also the experience of positive freedom, thanks to which one can get rid of feelings of loneliness and detachment.
Fromm believed that people can be autonomous and unique without losing a sense of unity with other people and society. He called the type of freedom in which a person feels part of the world and at the same time does not depend on it, positive freedom. Achieving positive freedom requires people to be spontaneously active in their lives. He noted that we observe spontaneous activity in children, who usually act in accordance with their inner nature, and not according to social norms and prohibitions. In his book “The Art of Love,” one of the most famous, Fromm emphasized that love and work are these are the key components through which the development of positive freedom is achieved through the manifestation of spontaneous activity. Through love and work, people reconnect with others without sacrificing their sense of individuality or integrity.
In addition, in his opinion, human nature contains unique existential needs. They have nothing to do with social and aggressive instincts! Fromm argued that the conflict between the desire for freedom and the desire for security represents the most powerful motivational force in people's lives. The freedom-security dichotomy, this universal and inevitable fact of human nature, is determined by existential needs.
Basic existential human needs
Fromm identified five basic human existential needs
Need for connections
The Need for Connection To overcome feelings of isolation from nature and alienation, all people need to care about someone. to take part in someone and be responsible for someone. The ideal way to connect with the world is through “productive love,” helping people to work together and at the same time maintain their individuality. If the need for connection is not satisfied, people become narcissistic: they defend only their own selfish interests and are unable to trust others.
Need to overcome
The need to overcome. All people need to overcome their own; passive animal nature to become active and creative creators of their lives. The optimal solution to this need lies in creation. The work of creation (ideas, art, material values or raising children) allows people to rise above the randomness and passivity of their existence and thereby achieve a sense of freedom and self-worth. The inability to satisfy this vital need is the cause of destructiveness.
Need for roots
Need for roots. People need to feel like an integral part of the world. According to Fromm, this need arises from the very birth, when biological ties with the mother are severed. Towards the end of childhood, every person gives up the security that parental care provides. In late adulthood, each person faces the reality of being cut off from life itself as death approaches. Therefore, throughout their lives, people experience a need for roots, foundations, a sense of stability and strength, similar to the feeling of security that a connection with their mother gave in childhood. On the contrary, those who maintain symbiotic ties with their parents, home or community as a way to satisfy their need for roots are unable to experience their personal integrity and freedom.
Need for identity
Need for identity. Fromm believed that all people experience an internal need for identity with themselves; in an identity that makes them feel different from others and realize who and what they really are. Every person should be able to say: “I am me.” Individuals with a clear and distinct awareness of their individuality perceive themselves as masters of their lives, and not as constantly following someone else's instructions. Copying someone else's behavior, even to the point of blind conformity, does not allow a person to achieve a true sense of identity.
Need for belief system and commitment
The need for a belief system and commitment. Finally, according to Fromm, people need a stable and constant support to explain the complexity of the world. This frame of reference is a set of beliefs that allow people to perceive and comprehend reality, without which they would constantly find themselves stuck and unable to act purposefully. Fromm especially emphasized the importance of developing an objective and rational view of nature and society. He argued that a rational approach is absolutely necessary for maintaining health, including mental health.
People also need an object of devotion, a dedication to something or someone (a higher goal or God), which would be the meaning of life for them. Such dedication makes it possible to overcome an isolated existence and gives life meaning.
Social character types
Viewing human needs in an economic-political context, Fromm argued that the expression and satisfaction of these needs depends on the type of social conditions in which the individual lives. In essence, the opportunities that a particular society provides for people to satisfy their existential needs shape their personality structure—what Fromm called “basic character orientations.” Moreover, in Fromm's theory, like Freud's, a person's character orientations are viewed as stable and not changing over time.
Fromm highlighted five social character types prevailing in modern societies. These social types, or forms of establishing relationships with others, represent the interaction of existential needs and the social context in which people live. Fromm divided them into two large classes: unproductive (unhealthy) and productive (healthy) types. The category of unproductive ones includes receptive, exploiting, accumulating and market types of character. The category productive represents the type of ideal mental health in Fromm’s understanding. Fromm noted that none of these character types exists in a pure form, since unproductive and productive qualities are combined in different people in different proportions. Consequently, the influence of a given social character type on mental health or illness depends on the ratio of positive and negative traits manifested in the individual.
Receptive types
Receptive types are convinced that the source of everything good in life is outside themselves. They are openly dependent and passive, unable to do anything without help, and think that their main task in life is to be loved rather than to love. Receptive individuals can be characterized as passive, trusting and sentimental. In extremes, people with a receptive orientation can be optimistic and idealistic.
Operating types
Exploitative types take whatever they need or dream of through force or ingenuity. They are also incapable of creativity, and therefore they achieve love, possession, ideas and emotions by borrowing all this from others. The negative traits of an exploitative character are aggressiveness, arrogance and self-confidence, egocentrism and a tendency to seduce. Positive qualities include self-confidence, self-esteem and impulsiveness.
Accumulating types
Accumulating types try to possess as much material wealth, power and love as possible; they strive to avoid any attempts on their savings. Unlike the first two types, “hoarders” gravitate toward the past and are scared off by everything new. They resemble Freud's anal-retentive personality: rigid, suspicious and stubborn. According to Fromm, they also have some positive characteristics - foresight, loyalty and restraint.
Market type
The market type is based on the belief that personality is valued as a commodity that can be sold or profitably exchanged. These people are interested in maintaining a good appearance, meeting the right people, and are willing to demonstrate any personality trait that would increase their chances of success in selling themselves to potential customers. Their relationships with others are superficial, their motto is “I am what you want me to be.”
In addition to being extremely aloof, market orientation can be described by the following key personality traits: opportunistic, aimless, tactless, unscrupulous, and empty-handed. Their positive qualities are openness, curiosity and generosity. Fromm viewed the “market” personality as a product of modern capitalist society, formed in the USA and Western European countries.
Productive character
In contrast to the unproductive orientation, productive nature represents, from Fromm’s point of view, the ultimate goal in human development. This type is independent, honest, calm, loving, creative and performs socially useful actions. From Fromm's work it is clear that he viewed this orientation as a response to the contradictions of human existence inherent in society. It reveals a person’s ability for productive logical thinking, love and work. Through productive thinking, people learn who they are and therefore free themselves from self-deception. The power of productive love makes it possible for people to passionately love all life on Earth (biophilia). Fromm defined biophilia in terms of caring, responsibility, respect, and knowledge. Finally, productive work provides the ability to produce the necessities of life through creative self-expression. The result of the implementation of all the above powers, which are characteristic of all people, is a mature and holistic character structure.
Essentially, productive orientation in Fromm’s humanistic theory is the ideal state of a person. Hardly anyone has achieved all the characteristics of a productive personality. At the same time, Fromm was convinced that as a result of radical social reform, the productive orientation could become the dominant type in any culture. Fromm envisioned a perfect society as one in which basic human needs are satisfied. He called this society humanistic communal socialism.
Fromm's theory attempts to show how broad sociocultural influences interact with unique human needs in the process of personality formation. His fundamental thesis was that character structure (personality types) is related to certain social structures.
E. Fromm was one of the first to base the types on sociological factors. He emphasized the role of sociological, political, economic, religious and anthroposociological factors in the formation of character. Based on them, he identified five character types, which he divided into two large classes: unproductive, or unhealthy, and productive, or healthy. He classified four types as the first: receptive, exploitative, accumulating, market. According to Fromm, the productive type is a mentally ideally healthy type. As typology scholars usually emphasize, character types do not exist in a pure form, and Fromm also emphasized that the unproductive and productive classes are combined in different proportions in different people.
Receptive type
People belonging to this type are characterized by gullibility, passivity, sensitivity, and sentimentality. The whole world seems to them to be a source of pleasant experiences. They want to be loved. They like being loved more than loving themselves.
They are not very good at acting without outside help or support. They are usually idealists, often with their head in the clouds. They can be easily deceived, so they very often fall for the bait of various kinds of scammers and scoundrels.
Operating type
Characterized by strong character, dignity and confidence. Their behavior is characterized by aggressiveness. With your activity, perseverance, and ingenuity. They achieve their life goals. They are people of action. And others are also required to be active.
The surrounding reality and people are the means for exploiting types to achieve their goals.
Emotionally they are reserved.
Accumulating type
As the name suggests, these are people who have a craving for accumulation, be it money or real estate, power or love. They hold on to theirs with their teeth, avoiding risky actions. These people are characterized by conservatism. They are characterized by restraint, prudence, calmness and tolerance of other people's opinions. They are reliable, not prone to change, suspicious and stubborn, living in the past.
Market type
E. Fromm considered the market type of character to be the most typical product of modern society; the market type is most characteristic of residents of the USA and Western European countries. It is characterized by a focus on the outside world. The main thing in the market is commodity-money relations. For this type of people, personality also serves as a commodity, and based on this, the goal is set: to sell oneself as a person.
Such a person believes that everything needs to be done to sell himself at a higher price. That is, the product must have “packaging and marketing”. Such people pay attention to appearance, they are interested in the right people (although sometimes this is contrary to morality, but in the interests of the cause they neglect morality), they are ready to become loving (outwardly) just to achieve success in selling themselves to potential “customers”.
E. Fromm characterizes them as superficial, tactless, immoral in achieving success, unscrupulous in their means and at the same time open, inquisitive and generous.
Productive type
The productive type, according to E. Fromm, is characterized by honesty before oneself and in relationships with others, independence in judgments and actions, ardent love for people and animals, and productive creative thinking. People of the productive type are often involved in social activities.
E. Fromm believed that society is torn apart by contradictions, resulting in loneliness, isolation and alienation. A person gets rid of this condition by “flight from himself and self-deception.” A productive person manages to remain himself only thanks to three components.
Firstly, this is creative logical thinking. Secondly, it is productive love, which makes it possible to love all living things on earth, which gives a person such qualities as caring for all living beings and especially loved ones, responsibility, respect and knowledge.
And finally, the third component is socially useful work, which provides a person with the opportunity to express himself. The result of all three components is a mature, complete, holistic and productive person.
By and large, the productive personality type of E. Fromm is an ideal type. It is unlikely that anyone fully meets all three characteristics, but Fromm believed that this correspondence can be achieved if a radical social reform occurs and society becomes perfect.
Fromm believed that a person's character belongs to a certain type or, as he said, to a certain orientation, constant, stable and not changing over time.
Fromm identified five social types of character that prevail in modern societies. These social types, or forms of establishing relationships with others, represent the interaction of existential needs and the social context in which people live. Fromm divided them into two large classes: unproductive (unhealthy) and productive (healthy) types. The first four types, according to Fromm, – unproductive:
Receptive types – are convinced that the source of everything good in life is outside of themselves. They are openly dependent and passive, unable to do anything without help, and think that their main task in life is to be loved rather than to love. They can be described as passive, trusting, sentimental.
Operating types – take whatever they need or dream of through strength and ingenuity. They are not capable of creativity; they achieve love, possession, ideas, emotions, borrowing all this from others. Their negative traits are aggressiveness, arrogance, arrogance, egocentrism, and a tendency to seduce. Positive qualities include self-confidence and self-esteem.
Accumulating types – trying to possess as much material wealth, power and love as possible; strive to avoid any attempts on their savings. Unlike the first two types, they gravitate toward the past and are scared off by everything new. They resemble the anal-retentive personality, according to Freud: rigid, suspicious, stubborn. Their positive qualities are foresight, loyalty, restraint.
Market type – comes from the belief that personality is valued as a commodity that can be sold or profitably exchanged. These people are interested in maintaining a good appearance, meeting the right people, and are willing to demonstrate any personality trait that would increase their chances of success in selling themselves to potential customers. Their relationships with others are superficial, their motto is “I am what you want me to be” (Fromm, 1947). Their key character traits: aimlessness, tactlessness, unscrupulousness, emptiness. Their positive qualities are openness, curiosity, generosity (see above table of positive and negative qualities of this personality type).
In contrast to the unproductive orientation, the productive character is, from the point of view Fromm, the ultimate goal in human development. He is independent, honest, calm, loving, creative and does socially useful things. The power of productive love makes it possible for a person to love all life on Earth. He is characterized by caring, responsibility, respect, good knowledge and the ability to express himself creatively. He is distinguished by a mature, holistic character structure.
Fromm believed that as a result of radical social reform, this orientation could become the dominant type in any culture. But, in fact, a productive personality is an ideal person and it is unlikely that anyone has achieved all the characteristics of this personality.
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Social types of characters in E. Fromm’s typology
E. Fromm was one of the first to base the types on sociological factors. He emphasized the role of sociological, political, economic, religious and anthroposociological factors in the formation of character. Based on them, he identified five character types, which he divided into two large classes: unproductive, or unhealthy, and productive, or healthy. He classified four types as the first: receptive, exploitative, accumulating, market. According to Fromm, the productive type is a mentally ideally healthy type. As typology scholars usually emphasize, character types do not exist in a pure form, and Fromm also emphasized that the unproductive and productive classes are combined in different proportions in different people.
Receptive type
People belonging to this type are characterized by gullibility, passivity, sensitivity, and sentimentality. The whole world seems to them to be a source of pleasant experiences. They want to be loved. They like being loved more than loving themselves.
They are not very good at acting without outside help or support. They are usually idealists, often with their head in the clouds. They can be easily deceived, so they very often fall for the bait of various kinds of scammers and scoundrels.
Operating type
Characterized by strong character, dignity and confidence. Their behavior is characterized by aggressiveness. With your activity, perseverance, and ingenuity. They achieve their life goals. They are people of action. And others are also required to be active.
The surrounding reality and people are the means for exploiting types to achieve their goals.
Emotionally they are reserved.
Accumulating type
As the name suggests, these are people who have a craving for accumulation, be it money or real estate, power or love. They hold on to theirs with their teeth, avoiding risky actions. These people are characterized by conservatism. They are characterized by restraint, prudence, calmness and tolerance of other people's opinions. They are reliable, not prone to change, suspicious and stubborn, living in the past.
Market type
E. Fromm considered the market type of character to be the most typical product of modern society; the market type is most characteristic of residents of the USA and Western European countries.
Classification of social characters according to E. Fromm
It is characterized by a focus on the outside world. The main thing in the market is commodity-money relations. For this type of people, personality also serves as a commodity, and based on this, the goal is set: to sell oneself as a person.
Such a person believes that everything needs to be done to sell himself at a higher price. That is, the product must have “packaging and marketing”. Such people pay attention to appearance, they are interested in the right people (although sometimes this is contrary to morality, but in the interests of the cause they neglect morality), they are ready to become loving (outwardly) just to achieve success in selling themselves to potential “customers”.
E. Fromm characterizes them as superficial, tactless, immoral in achieving success, unscrupulous in their means and at the same time open, inquisitive and generous.
Productive type
The productive type, according to E. Fromm, is characterized by honesty before oneself and in relationships with others, independence in judgments and actions, ardent love for people and animals, and productive creative thinking. People of the productive type are often involved in social activities.
E. Fromm believed that society is torn apart by contradictions, resulting in loneliness, isolation and alienation. A person gets rid of this condition by “flight from himself and self-deception.” A productive person manages to remain himself only thanks to three components.
Firstly, this is creative logical thinking. Secondly, it is productive love, which makes it possible to love all living things on earth, which gives a person such qualities as caring for all living beings and especially loved ones, responsibility, respect and knowledge.
And finally, the third component is socially useful work, which provides a person with the opportunity to express himself. The result of all three components is a mature, complete, holistic and productive person.
By and large, the productive personality type of E. Fromm is an ideal type. It is unlikely that anyone fully meets all three characteristics, but Fromm believed that this correspondence can be achieved if a radical social reform occurs and society becomes perfect.
Fromm believed that a person's character belongs to a certain type or, as he said, to a certain orientation, constant, stable and not changing over time.
Existential human needs, according to the concept of E. Fromm
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Existential human needs
So far we have said that Fromm describes human existence in terms of separation from nature and isolation from others. In addition, in his opinion, human nature contains unique existential needs. They have nothing to do with social and aggressive instincts. Fromm argued that the conflict between the desire for freedom and the desire for security represents the most powerful motivational force in people's lives (Fromm, 1973). The freedom-security dichotomy, this universal and inevitable fact of human nature, is determined by existential needs. Fromm identified five basic human existential needs.
1. The need to establish connections. To overcome the feeling of isolation from nature and alienation, all people need to care about someone, take part in someone and be responsible for someone. The ideal way to connect with the world is through “productive love,” which helps people work together and at the same time maintain their individuality. If the need for connection is not satisfied, people become narcissistic: they defend only their own selfish interests and are unable to trust others.
2. The need to overcome. All people need to overcome their passive animal nature in order to become active and creative creators of their lives. The optimal solution to this need lies in creation. The work of creation (ideas, art, material values or raising children) allows people to rise above the randomness and passivity of their existence and thereby achieve a sense of freedom and self-worth. The inability to satisfy this vital need is the cause of destructiveness.
3. Need for roots. People need to feel like an integral part of the world. According to Fromm, this need arises from birth, when biological ties with the mother are severed (Fromm, 1973). Towards the end of childhood, every person gives up the security that parental care provides. In late adulthood, each person faces the reality of being cut off from life itself as death approaches. Therefore, throughout their lives, people experience a need for roots, foundations, a sense of stability and strength, similar to the feeling of security that a connection with their mother gave in childhood. On the contrary, those who maintain symbiotic ties with their parents, home or community as a way to satisfy their need for roots are unable to experience their personal integrity and freedom.
4. Need for identity. Fromm believed that all people experience an internal need for identity with themselves; in an identity that makes them feel different from others and realize who and what they really are. In short, every person should be able to say: “I am me.” Individuals with a clear and distinct awareness of their individuality perceive themselves as masters of their lives, and not as constantly following someone else's instructions. Copying someone else's behavior, even to the point of blind conformity, does not allow a person to achieve a true sense of identity.
5. The need for a belief system and commitment. Finally, according to Fromm, people need a stable and constant support to explain the complexity of the world. This orientation system is a set of beliefs that allow people to perceive and comprehend reality, without which they would constantly find themselves stuck and unable to act purposefully. Fromm particularly emphasized the importance of developing an objective and rational view of nature and society (Fromm, 1981). He argued that a rational approach is absolutely necessary for maintaining health, including mental health.
People also need an object of devotion, a dedication to something or someone (a higher goal or God), which would be the meaning of life for them. Such dedication makes it possible to overcome an isolated existence and gives meaning to life.
<Фромм полагал, что религия часто обеспечивает людей опорной ориентацией, придающей смысл их жизни.>
Viewing human needs in an economic-political context, Fromm argued that the expression and satisfaction of these needs depends on the type of social conditions in which the individual lives. In essence, the opportunities for satisfying existential needs that a particular society provides to people shape their personality structure - what Fromm called “basic character orientations.” Moreover, in Fromm's theory, like Freud's, a person's character orientations are viewed as stable and not changing over time.
Social character types
Fromm identified five social character types that prevail in modern societies (Fromm, 1947). These social types, or forms of establishing relationships with others, represent the interaction of existential needs and the social context in which people live. Fromm divided them into two large classes: unproductive (unhealthy) and productive (healthy) types. The category of unproductive ones includes receptive, exploiting, accumulating and market types of character. The category of productive represents the type of ideal mental health in Fromm’s understanding. Fromm noted that none of these character types exists in a pure form, since unproductive and productive qualities are combined in different people in different proportions. Consequently, the influence of a given social character type on mental health or illness depends on the ratio of positive and negative traits manifested in the individual.
1. Receptive types are convinced that the source of everything good in life is outside of themselves. They are openly dependent and passive, unable to do anything without help, and think that their main task in life is to be loved rather than to love. Receptive individuals can be characterized as passive, trusting and sentimental. In extremes, people with a receptive orientation can be optimistic and idealistic.
2. Operating types take whatever they need or dream of through force or ingenuity. They are also incapable of creativity, and therefore achieve love, possession, ideas and emotions by borrowing all this from others. The negative traits of an exploitative character are aggressiveness, arrogance and self-confidence, egocentrism and a tendency to seduce.
Types of social character according to E. Fromm
Positive qualities include self-confidence, self-esteem and impulsiveness.
3. Accumulating types trying to possess as much material wealth, power and love as possible; they strive to avoid any attempts on their savings. Unlike the first two types, “hoarders” gravitate toward the past and are scared off by everything new. They resemble Freud's anal-retentive personality: rigid, suspicious and stubborn. According to Fromm, they also have some positive characteristics - prudence, loyalty and restraint.
4. Market type comes from the belief that personality is valued as a commodity that can be sold or profitably exchanged. These people are interested in maintaining a good appearance, meeting the right people, and are willing to demonstrate any personality trait that would increase their chances of success in selling themselves to potential customers. Their relationships with others are superficial, their motto is “I am what you want me to be” (Fromm, 1947, p. 73).
In addition to being extremely aloof, market orientation can be described by the following key personality traits: opportunistic, aimless, tactless, unscrupulous, and empty-handed. Their positive qualities are openness, curiosity and generosity. Fromm viewed the “market” personality as a product of modern capitalist society, formed in the USA and Western European countries.
5. In contrast to the unproductive orientation, productive nature represents, from Fromm’s point of view, the ultimate goal in human development. This type is independent, honest, calm, loving, creative and performs socially useful actions. Fromm's work shows that he viewed this orientation as a response to the contradictions of human existence inherent in society (Fromm, 1955, 1968). It reveals a person’s ability for productive logical thinking, love and work. Through productive thinking, people learn who they are and therefore free themselves from self-deception. The power of productive love enables people to passionately love all life on Earth (biophilia). Fromm defined biophilia in terms of caring, responsibility, respect, and knowledge. Finally, productive work provides the ability to produce the necessities of life through creative self-expression. The result of the implementation of all the above powers, which are characteristic of all people, is a mature and holistic character structure.
Essentially, productive orientation in Fromm's humanistic theory is the ideal state of a person. Hardly anyone has achieved all the characteristics of a productive personality. At the same time, Fromm was convinced that as a result of radical social reform, the productive orientation could become the dominant type in any culture. Fromm envisioned a perfect society as one in which basic human needs are satisfied (Fromm, 1968). He called this society humanistic communal socialism.
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According to Lewin, the driving force of human activity is need. Levin distinguished two types of needs - biological and social (quasi-needs) ...
Man in search of meaning: personality problems in humanistic psychology
2. Humanistic theory of Erich Fromm: freedom and existential needs of man
Erich Fromm is one of the first psychologists who tried to expand the horizons of psychoanalysis. Existential philosophy became the basis of his humanistic theory. According to E. Fromm, an integral feature of human existence is loneliness...
Social types of character, according to E. Fromm
In connection with the broad formulation of personality problems and the search for ways to solve them, Fromm came to the conclusion about the significance of the theory socialcharacter and identifying its specific types. Here he continues the tradition of all neo-Freudian and post-Freudianism, putting forward the concept socialcharacter to a prominent place in his work. Before this, we saw how A did the same thing.
Typology of social characters by E. Fromm.
Adler, and K. Jung, and K. Horney. Each of them had, of course, his own approach to considering this problem, his own grounds for typologizing character. It is important for us to note the presence of the very approach to the problem.
Social character Fromm- this is a form of connection between the individual’s psyche and social structure of society. He distinguishes the social character, which is the core of society, from the individual character. The difference is that individual character is inherent in people within one culture, while social character serves as the basis for identifying differences between one culture and another.
Character is a form of crystallization of a person’s mental energy, which allows it to be used as a productive force in social life. In the work “Man for Himself,” the scientist writes: “...the fundamental basis character I see it... in a specific type of relationship between the individual and the world. In the process of life, a person enters into relationships with the world 1) through mastery of things and their assimilation and 2) through relationships with people (and with himself). The first I call the process of assimilation; the second - the process of socialization" [Fromm. Minsk. 1992. P. 62]. Fromm believes that the orientations through which an individual enters into relationships with the world determine the essence of it character. Based on this approach to character, he gives the following definition: “character can be defined as a (relatively permanent) form that serves as a conductor of human energy in the process of assimilation and socialization” [Ibid. P. 63].
Having examined character at the level of personality psychology, Fromm then moves on to his sociological analysis. “The fact,” he writes, “that the majority of the members of a certain social class or culture have similarities in significant elements character and what can we say about the “social character” that represents the essence of the warehouse character, common to most members of a given culture, indicates the degree of participation in the formation character social and cultural models" [Ibid. P. 64].
Every step development Society has its own social character. Fromm examines the types of capitalism characteristic of his contemporary stage socialcharacter, associating them with two orientations: unfruitful and fruitful. In this case, the main attention is paid to the types character in connection with an unproductive orientation, which in general becomes understandable given his negative perception of the capitalist society in which he lived, and his sharply critical analysis in a number of works. Main types socialcharacter unfruitful orientations are: receptive (passive), exploitative, acquisitive, market. Let's take a closer look at each of them.
Receptive (passive) character (or orientation) means that a person seeks to acquire something from the outside, i.e. From an external source. People with this type character depend not only on authorities who give them knowledge and assistance, but also on people in general who are capable of providing any kind of support. These are people who cannot take on the burden of decision and the weight of responsibility. Fromm calls receptive orientation taking.
Exploitative type character close to receptive in that people to whom it is inherent see the source of receiving everything and everyone from the outside. However, the difference is that they do not hope to receive anything as a gift from others, but take away what they want from them by force or cunning. Fromm writes: “Since they are satisfied only with things that they can take away from others, they tend to overestimate what belongs to others and underestimate their own” [Ibid. P. 69]. He calls the exploitative orientation the mastering orientation.
Character – this is lifetime education, it is formed in the process of upbringing and training in similar conditions.
Throughout life, a person enters into relationships with the world through the mastery of things and through interaction with people. And the form of these relationships depends on his character.
In the course of life, a person learns to act semi-automatically in certain situations. And these actions reflect the essence of character. Character also makes it possible to adapt to society. Thus, the character function allows a person to act consistently and intelligently.
The main role in character formation belongs to the family. A child copies the behavior of his parents, and this is how his character is formed. Also, the formation of a child’s character in the process of growing up is partly influenced by the mental and material characteristics inherent in his environment. As well as characteristics of temperament.
Erich Fromm researched character types and presented them in the form UNFRUITIBLE And FRUITIBLE orientation. They are presented separately, although usually the character of each personality consists of a combination of several orientations, with one of them being dominant. Let's look at them through the prism of love and thinking.
Types of character of unfruitful orientation:
Character types of fruitful orientation:
RECEPTION CHARACTER
With this orientation, it seems to a person that “everything good”, be it material wealth, positive emotions, knowledge, is located outside.
In this state of affairs, people tend not to give, but to receive.
They are not used to giving love, but only receiving it. Thus they fall into their own trap. They become indiscriminate in choosing a partner, rushing at everyone who offers them love or its semblance. They become extremely sensitive whenever their partner moves away, dependent on the relationship.
The same applies to the intellectual sphere. Such people do not obtain information on their own. They are looking for a person who can lead them and give them ready-made necessary information.
In the case when a person is religious, he expects EVERYTHING from the Almighty, without showing any activity.
People with this orientation require a “magical assistant” in all areas of life. This forces them to be loyal to other people. They are unable to say “no” and thus become dependent on others. They become very helpful. Unable to do anything without outside help. They feel unsafe without the support of others. As a result, they are unable to make their own decisions and take responsibility.
Receptive people love to drink and eat. In this way they suppress their anxiety. Their movements and gestures are smooth, as if alluring.
In general, the attitude of such people is optimistic and friendly. They have a certain trust in the world, and they become anxious only when there is a possible loss of their “power source.”
EXPLOITATIVE CHARACTER
This orientation is similar to the receptive one. These types of people also have the idea that all good things are external. The main difference is that they do not expect gifts from others, but take away what they want with cunning and force. They tend to overestimate what others have and underestimate what they have. This orientation extends to all areas of life.
In love, they only appropriate a person who belongs to someone else; they are not interested in people who are free from relationships.
The same applies to intellectual activity. They are prone to plagiarism, despite the fact that they are often talented and intellectually developed people. They could very well create their own creations. But other people's things seem more attractive to them than those that they are able to create themselves.
They use and exploit everyone and everything they can get something out of. They evaluate each object of interaction as an object of utility. Their main motto: “Stolen fruit is the sweetest.”
People with an exploitative orientation are characterized by suspicion, cynicism, jealousy, and envy. Their gestures and movements are sharp and aggressive. Very often they make sarcastic remarks about other people. A sarcastic grimace is their distinctive feature.
ACQUISITIONAL CHARACTER
People with an acquisitive orientation have little faith that they can get anything from the outside world. Their security is built on acquisitiveness and economy. They perceive spending as a threat to their safety. Their goal is to bring as much into the house as possible and not give anything away.
Their stinginess extends to all areas of life. Both on material values, and on feelings and thoughts.
In love relationships, they try to take possession of their loved ones, without giving away their love. They perceive intimacy with other people as a threat, and they either withdraw or take possession of people in order to eliminate the threat. They are very suspicious. Their motto is “What’s mine is mine, and what’s yours is yours.”
The movements and gestures of people with an acquisitive orientation are prim. Lips tightly compressed. They are characterized by pedantic accuracy.
For people with an acquisitive orientation, the outside world poses a threat of intrusion into their defensive position. Their rigid and sterile neatness is an expression of the need to eliminate contact with the outside world. They perceive things from the outside world as dangerous and unclean.
Also characteristic of this type of people are obsessive punctuality and stubbornness. This is a kind of subjugation of the outside world to oneself. Stubbornly standing your ground is the answer to an external threat.
MARKET CHARACTER
Market orientation has developed into a dominant one only in the modern era. The free market, based on competition, has nurtured this type of people. Sales become more important than labor.
A modern person perceives himself both as a product for sale on the market and as a seller. Regardless of what a person’s profession is, or the exchange value of a certain product or person, this profession must be in demand. In today's market, it is not enough to have the knowledge and skill to perform a specific task, but you also need to be able to compete with others. Success in this case depends not so much on what you know and can do, but also on how you know how to sell your personality. To do this, you need to have knowledge of what type of personality is in highest demand.
A person receives this knowledge throughout the entire process of upbringing: in the family, in social institutions, from the covers of magazines, the media, cinema and from other sources that demonstrate the appearance and life stories of successful people.
If a person's measure of personal worth is based on the vicissitudes of the market, his self-respect and self-esteem are destroyed. A mature and productive individual feels like an independent being.
With a market orientation, what is important for a person is not his self-realization, but his success in the sales process. His powers, and what is created by them, are alienated from him, become something different, hidden from him; something that others will use and appreciate. He is not identical with them.
This situation makes a market-oriented person completely dependent on how others perceive him. Such people are left to their own devices, fear failure, are eager to please, do not spare others and do not expect mercy.
It should be noted that when describing unfruitful characters, only their negative sides were presented.
FRUIT CHARACTER
The fruitful orientation represents developed character, which is the goal of human development and the ideal of humanistic ethics.
A fruitful personality orientation means a fundamental attitude towards the perception of the world in all spheres of human experience, including mental, emotional, sensory reactions to oneself, to other people, to things. Fruitfulness is a person’s ability to use their strengths and realize their potential (to go and achieve), to be free and independent from control and violence.
The essence of “fruitful love” is the same, whether it is the love of a mother for a child, love for people, or erotic love between two individuals. The basic elements are present in all forms of fruitful love: care, responsibility, respect, knowledge.
Not every person has the ability to love. This quality attracts other people. To love a person fruitfully means to take care of him and feel responsible for his life, for the development of all his human powers. But without respect, i.e. By accepting a person as he is and knowing a loved one, love turns into possessiveness.
Fruitful love equates love for one person with love for all humanity. Love for one individual can be attributed to something random and superficial.
The symbol of the highest degree of love is maternal love, which implies unconditionality based only on the mother’s response to the needs of the child.
Love is a fruitful form of relating to others and to oneself. It involves caring, responsibility, respect and knowledge, as well as a desire for the other person to grow and develop.
With fruitful thinking, the subject is not indifferent to the subject, but is interested in it. Otherwise, thinking becomes meaningless and unfruitful. The relationship between subject and object stimulates thinking the most.
Fruitful thinking is also characterized by objectivity, i.e. the thinker sees the object as it really is, and not as one would like to see it. Objectivity requires the thinker to see himself as he is, i.e. realize how you are connected to the object of study.
Fruitful activity, be it thinking or love, is possible only with a rhythmic change of activity and rest. This is a person’s ability to remain calm and alone with himself when necessary. If productive activity is paralyzed, it results in either inactivity or overactivity. Laziness and forced activity are two symptoms of impaired human functioning. With this disorder, a person is found to be either unable to perform work or unable to enjoy leisure and quiet.
Freedom from pressure, virtue, the opportunity to listen to oneself are factors that contribute to the development of a fruitful character.
In conclusion, it should be answered that different character orientations are combined in various combinations, each of them qualitatively changing depending on the level of fruitfulness present in it. And if you add the difference in , then the number of combinations grows exponentially.
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Unlike Freud and Jung, E. Fromm did not have a medical education. It is worth noting that he studied psychology, sociology and philosophy. It is worth noting that he sought to expand the horizons of psychoanalytic theory, emphasizing the role of sociological, political, economic, religious and anthropological factors in the formation of personality. His interpretation of personality begins with an analysis of the human conditions and their changes, from the beginning and end of the Middle Ages (late 15th century) to our time. At the end of his historical analysis, Erich Fromm concluded that loneliness, isolation and alienation will be an integral feature of human existence in our time. With all this, he was confident that each historical period was characterized by the progressive development of individuality as people struggled to achieve greater personal freedom in the development of all their potentialities. At the same time, the significant degree of autonomy and freedom of choice that people living in modern Western society enjoy has been achieved at the cost of losing a sense of complete security and developing a sense of personal insignificance. From Fromm's perspective, today's men and women face a painful dilemma. Unprecedented pain from severe social, political, economic and religious restrictions (as is the case today in American culture) required compensation in the form of a sense of security and a sense of belonging to society. Fromm believed that this the gap between freedom and safety has caused unprecedented difficulties in human existence. People fight for freedom and autonomy, but this very struggle causes a feeling of alienation from nature and society. People need to have power over their lives and to have the right to choose, but they also need to feel united and connected to other people. The intensity of this conflict and the methods of its resolution depend, according to Fromm, on the economic and political systems of societies. How do people overcome the feelings of loneliness, insignificance and alienation that accompany ϲʙᴏboda? It is important to note that one way is to abandon one's body and suppress one's individuality. Fromm described several strategies used by people to “escape from being killed.” The first of these is authoritarianism, defined as “the tendency to connect oneself with someone or something external in order to regain the power lost by the individual self.” Authoritarianism will exist in both masochistic and sadistic tendencies. In the masochistic form of authoritarianism, people show excessive dependence, subordination and helplessness in relationships with others. The sadistic form, on the contrary, is expressed in the exploitation of others, domination and control over them. Fromm argued that both tendencies are usually present in the same individual. For example, in a highly authoritarian military structure, a person may voluntarily obey the commands of senior officers and humiliate or brutally exploit subordinates. The second way of escape is destructiveness. Following this tendency, a person tries to overcome feelings of inferiority by destroying or conquering others. According to Fromm, duty, patriotism and love are common examples of the rationalization of destructive actions.
Finally, people can overcome loneliness and alienation through absolute obedience to social norms governing behavior. Note that the term automaton conformity Fromm applied to a person who uses this strategy, thanks to which he becomes absolutely like everyone else and behaves in a generally accepted way. “The individual ceases to be himself; he turns into the type of personality required by the cultural model, and therefore becomes absolutely similar to others - the way they want him to be.” Fromm believed that such a loss of individuality was firmly rooted in the social character of most modern people. Like animals with protective coloring, people with the conformity of automata become indistinguishable from their surroundings. It's worth noting that they share the same values, pursue the same career goals, purchase the same products, and think and feel like almost everyone else in their culture.
According to Fromm, in contrast to the three listed mechanisms of escape from pain, there is also the experience of positive fear, thanks to which you can get rid of the feeling of loneliness and detachment.
Fromm believed that people can be autonomous and unique without losing their sense of unity with other people and society. It is worth noting that he called the type of freedom in which a person feels part of the world and at the same time does not depend on it, positive attitude. Achieving a positive life requires people to be spontaneously active in life. It is worth noting that he noted that we observe spontaneous activity in children, who usually act in accordance with their inner nature, and not according to social norms and prohibitions. In his book “The Art of Love,” one of the most famous, Fromm emphasized that love and work are the key components with the help of which the development of a positive body is carried out through the manifestation of spontaneous activity. Through love and work, people reconnect with others without sacrificing their sense of individuality or integrity.
In addition to this, in his opinion, human nature contains unique existential needs. It is worth noting that they have nothing to do with social and aggressive instincts! Fromm argued that the conflict between the desire for security and the desire for security represents the most powerful motivational force in people's lives. The dichotomy between security and safety, which is a universal and inevitable fact of human nature, is determined by existential needs.
Basic existential human needs
Fromm identified five basic human existential needs
Need for connections
The Need for Connection To overcome feelings of isolation from nature and alienation, it is essential for all people to care about someone. to take part in someone and be responsible for someone. The ideal way to connect with the world is through “productive love,” helping people to work together and at the same time maintain their individuality. If the need to establish connections is not satisfied, people become narcissistic: they defend only selfish interests and are unable to trust others.
Need to overcome
The need to overcome. All people need to overcome ϲʙᴏе; passive animal nature, in order to become active and creative creators of its life. It is appropriate to note that the optimal solution to this need lies in creation. The work of creation (ideas, art, material values or raising children) allows people to rise above the randomness and passivity of their existence and thereby achieve a sense of well-being and self-worth. The inability to satisfy this vital need will be the cause of destructiveness.
Need for roots
Need for roots. People need to feel like an integral part of the world. According to Fromm, this need arises from the very birth, when biological ties with the mother are severed. Towards the end of childhood, every person gives up the security that parental care provides. In late adulthood, each person faces the reality of being cut off from life itself as death approaches. Therefore, throughout their entire lives, people feel the need for roots, foundations, a sense of stability and strength, similar to the feeling of security that a connection with their mother gave in childhood. On the contrary, those who maintain symbiotic ties with their parents, home or community as a way of satisfying their need for roots are unable to experience their personal integrity and integrity.
Need for identity
Need for identity. Fromm believed that all people experience an internal need for identity with themselves; in identity, thanks to which they feel different from others and realize who and what they really are. Let us note that every person should be able to say: “I am ϶ᴛᴏ I.” Individuals with a clear and distinct awareness of their individuality perceive themselves as masters of their life, and not as constantly following someone else's instructions. Copying someone else's behavior, even to the point of blind conformity, does not allow a person to achieve a true sense of identity.
Need for belief system and commitment
The need for a belief system and commitment. Finally, according to Fromm, people need a stable and constant support to explain the complexity of the world. By the way, this orientation system is a set of beliefs that allow people to perceive and comprehend reality, without which they would constantly find themselves stuck and unable to act purposefully. Fromm especially emphasized the importance of developing an objective and rational view of nature and society. It is worth noting that he argued that a rational approach is absolutely necessary for maintaining health, incl. and mental.
People also need an object of devotion, a dedication to something or someone (a higher goal or God), which would be the meaning of life for them. Such dedication makes it possible to overcome an isolated existence and gives life meaning.
Social character types
Considering human needs in an economic and political context, Fromm argued that the expression and satisfaction of these needs depends on the type of social conditions in which the individual lives. In essence, the opportunities for satisfying existential needs that a certain society provides people form their personality structure - what Fromm called “basic character orientations.” Moreover, in Fromm's theory, like Freud's, a person's character orientations are viewed as stable and not changing over time.
Fromm highlighted five social character types prevailing in modern societies. These social types, or forms of establishing relationships with others, represent the interaction of existential needs and the social context in which people live. Fromm divided them into two large classes: unproductive (unhealthy) and productive (healthy) types. The category of unproductive ones includes receptive, exploiting, accumulating and market types of character. The category productive represents the type of ideal mental health in Fromm’s understanding. Fromm noted that none of these character types exists in a pure form, since unproductive and productive qualities are combined in different people in different proportions. Consequently, the influence of a given social character type on mental health or illness depends on the ratio of positive and negative traits manifested in the individual.
Receptive types
Receptive types are convinced that the source of everything good in life is outside themselves. It is worth noting that they are openly dependent and passive, unable to do anything without outside help, and think that their main task in life is to be loved rather than to love. Receptive individuals can be characterized as passive, trusting and sentimental. If we put aside the extremes, people with a receptive orientation can be optimistic and idealistic.
Operating types
Exploitative types take whatever they need or dream of through force or ingenuity. It is worth noting that they are also incapable of creativity, and therefore they achieve love, possession, ideas and emotions, borrowing everything from others. The negative traits of an exploitative character will be aggressiveness, arrogance and self-confidence, self-centeredness and a tendency to seduce. Positive qualities include self-confidence, self-esteem and impulsiveness.
Accumulating types
Accumulating types try to possess as much material wealth, power and love as possible; they strive to avoid any attempts at accumulation and accumulation. Unlike the first two types, “hoarders” gravitate toward the past and are scared off by everything new. It is worth noting that they resemble Freud's anal-retentive personality: rigid, suspicious and stubborn. According to Fromm, they also have some positive characteristics - prudence, loyalty and restraint.
Market type
The market type is based on the belief that a person is valued as a commodity that can be sold or profitably exchanged. These people are interested in maintaining a good appearance, meeting the right people, and are willing to demonstrate any personality trait that would increase their chances of success in selling themselves to potential customers. Their relationships with others are superficial, their motto is “I am what you want me to be.”
In addition to being extremely aloof, market orientation can be described by the following key personality traits: opportunistic, aimless, tactless, unscrupulous, and empty-handed. Their positive qualities are openness, curiosity and generosity. Fromm viewed the “market” personality as a product of modern capitalist society, formed in the USA and Western European countries.
Productive character
In contrast to the unproductive orientation, productive nature represents, from Fromm’s position, the ultimate goal in human development. This type is independent, honest, calm, loving, creative and performs socially useful actions. From Fromm's work it is clear that he viewed this orientation as a response to the contradictions of human existence inherent in society. It will awaken a person’s ability for productive logical thinking, love and work. Through productive thinking, people learn who they are and therefore free themselves from self-deception. The power of productive love makes it possible for people to passionately love all life on Earth (biophilia). Fromm defined biophilia with the help of such qualities as care, responsibility, respect and knowledge. Finally, productive work provides the ability to produce the necessities of life through creative self-expression. The result of the implementation of all the above powers, inherent in all people, will be a mature and holistic character structure.
Essentially, productive orientation in Fromm’s humanistic theory is the ideal state of a person. Hardly anyone has achieved all the characteristics of a productive personality. With all this, Fromm was convinced that as a result of radical social reform, a productive orientation could become the dominant type in any culture. Fromm envisioned a perfect society as one in which basic human needs are satisfied. It is worth noting that he called this society humanistic communal socialism.
Note that Fromm's theory attempts to show how broad sociocultural influences interact with unique human needs in the process of personality formation. His fundamental thesis was that the structure of character (personality types) is associated with certain social structures.
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