LECTURE SUMMARY ON THE DISCIPLINE: "SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE"
ChapterI. SOCIOLOGY
The purpose of the science of sociology-
people's happiness
L. Tolstoy
Sociology- this is an understanding of a person, this is a civilized approach to society, this is the study of real life situations that everyone faces, not always thinking about their social meaning and causes.
Vivid bursts of sociological thought go back centuries, but only in the 19th century did sociology become an independent science that comprehends and systematizes objective data about reality. In the 20th century, interest in sociology increases dramatically; a kind of sociological boom was observed in the 20-30s, 50-60s, 80-90s. In modern conditions, sociology is being studied and developed in all civilized countries.
Topic 1. Sociology as a science
Questions: 1. Object and subject of sociology.
2. The place of sociology in the system of scientific knowledge. The structure of science.
3. The role of sociology in society and its functions.
Object and subject of sociology
The object of sociological knowledge is society. The term "sociology" comes from the Latin "societas" - society and the Greek "logos" - doctrine, meaning in literal translation "the doctrine of society". Human society is a unique phenomenon. It is directly or indirectly the object of many sciences (history, philosophy, economics, psychology, jurisprudence, etc.), each of which has its own perspective of studying society, i.e., its own subject.
The subject of sociology is social life, i.e., a complex of social phenomena arising from the interaction of people and communities. The concept of "social" is deciphered as referring to the life of people in the process of their relationships. The vital activity of people is realized in society in three traditional spheres (economic, political, spiritual) and one non-traditional - social. The first three give a horizontal section of society, the fourth - a vertical one, implying a division according to the subjects of social relations (ethnic groups, families, etc.). These elements of the social structure in the process of their interaction in traditional spheres form the basis of social life, which in all its diversity exists, is recreated and changes only in the activities of people. According to the American researcher Neil Smelser, sociologists want to know why people behave this way and not otherwise, why they form groups, why they go to war, worship something, get married and vote, that is, everything that happens when they interact with each other.
The definition of sociology as a science is formed from the designation of the object and subject. Its numerous variants with different formulations have a substantial identity or similarity. Sociology is defined in a variety of ways:
As a scientific study of society and social relations (Neil Smelser, USA);
As a science that studies almost all social processes and phenomena (Anthony Giddens, USA);
How to study the phenomena of human interaction and the phenomena arising from this interaction (Pitirim Sorokin, Russia - USA);
As a science of social communities, the mechanisms of their formation, functioning and development, etc. The variety of definitions of sociology reflects the complexity and versatility of its object and subject.
The place of sociology in the system of scientific knowledge. The structure of science
The specificity of sociology lies in its borderline position between natural science and socio-humanitarian knowledge. It simultaneously uses the methods of philosophical and socio-historical generalizations and the specific methods of the natural sciences - experiment and observation. Sociology is armed with the latest apparatus of scientific thinking, in particular, electronic computers.
Sociology has strong links with applied mathematics, statistics, logic, and linguistics. Applied sociology has points of contact with ethics, aesthetics, medicine, pedagogy, planning and management theory.
In the system of socio-humanitarian knowledge, sociology plays a special role, as it gives other sciences about society a scientifically based theory of society through its structural elements and their interaction; methods and techniques of human study.
Sociology has the closest connection with history. With all the sciences of society, sociology is connected by the social aspect of his life; hence, socio-economic, socio-demographic and other studies, on the basis of which new “frontier” sciences are born: social psychology, sociobiology, social ecology, etc.
Structure of sociology. In modern sociology, three approaches to the structure of this science coexist.
First (content) implies the mandatory presence of three main interrelated components: a) empiricism, i.e. a complex of sociological studies focused on the collection and analysis of real facts of social life using a special methodology; b) theories- a set of judgments, views, models, hypotheses that explain the processes of development of the social system as a whole and its elements; in) methodology - systems of principles underlying the accumulation, construction and application of sociological knowledge.
Second approach (targeted) divides sociology into fundamental and applied. Fundamental sociology(basic, academic) is focused on the growth of knowledge and scientific contribution to fundamental discoveries. It solves scientific problems related to the formation of knowledge about social reality, description, explanation and understanding of the processes of social development. Applied sociology focused on practical use. This is a set of theoretical models, methods, research procedures, social technologies, specific programs and recommendations aimed at achieving a real social effect. As a rule, fundamental and applied sociology incorporate both empiricism, theory, and methodology.
Third approach (large scale) divides science into macro - and microsociology. The first studies large-scale social phenomena (ethnic groups, states, social institutions, groups, etc.); the second - the spheres of direct social interaction (interpersonal relations, communication processes in groups, the sphere of everyday reality).
In sociology, content-structural elements of different levels are also distinguished: general sociological knowledge; sectoral sociology (economic, industrial, political, leisure, management, etc.); independent sociological schools, directions, concepts, theories,
The role of sociology in society and its functions
Sociology studies the life of society, learns the trends of its development, predicts the future and corrects the present both at the macro and micro levels. Studying almost all spheres of society, it aims at the coordination of their development.
Sociology can and must play the role of a social controller in society, intervening in the development of technology, the natural and social sciences. It can show the way out of impasses in social development, out of crisis situations, and can choose the most optimal model for further development.
Sociology is directly connected with production through the problems of its social development, the improvement of personnel, the improvement of planning and the socio-psychological climate. It can serve as a powerful tool in the hands of political forces, influencing the mass consciousness and shaping it.
Sociology builds bridges between personal and social problems. Under the roof of this pluralistic science, new branches of knowledge about society and man are born.
Sociology performs many different functions in society. The main ones are:
theoretical-cognitive functions", a) informational (obtaining primary data about individuals and communities); b) theoretical (identification of trends, enrichment of sociological theory); c) methodological (it is carried out by fundamental sociology in relation to other social sciences and empirical research);
practical functions, a) forecasting; b) social control; c) optimization of the activities of social communities and people, making adjustments to this activity; d) social assistance;
worldview and ideological functions", a) target; b) discussion; c) propaganda; d) function of personnel training;
critical function(social policy warning about traffic deviations);
application function(improvement of managerial relations);
humanistic function(development of social ideals, programs of scientific and technical, socio-economic and socio-cultural development of society).
The success of the implementation of these functions depends on the level of development of society, social conditions, professional training of sociological personnel and the quality of the organization of sociological activities.
Topic 2. Sociology in the past and present
Questions: 1. The emergence and development of sociology (the beginning of the 19th - the end of the 20th centuries)
2. Research approaches to the study of society and the main directions of sociological thought
The emergence and development of sociology (beginningXIX- the endXXcenturies)
Since ancient times, people have been concerned not only with natural, but also with social mysteries and problems. Philosophers of Ancient Greece, thinkers of the Middle Ages and Modern times tried to solve them. Their judgments about society and man had a significant impact on the development of socio-humanitarian knowledge and contributed to the separation of sociology from it as an independent science.
The birth of sociology is usually associated with the name of the French naturalist Oppost Comte (1He was the first to raise the question of creating a science of society that models itself on the model of the natural sciences. It is no coincidence that this science was called by him "social physics." In the 30s XIX century, O. Comte creates his main scientific work "Course of Positive Philosophy", where a new name was given to the science of society - sociology. In the teachings of O. Comte, the most important were his ideas on the application of scientific methods in the study of society and on the practical use of science in the field of social reforms.
The fathers of sociology, its classics, in addition to O. Comte, can rightfully be called the English philosopher and naturalist Herbert Spencer (1 and the German scientist publicist Karl Marx (1 Spencer (the main work - "The Foundation of Sociology") was the author of organic theory, which was based on the likening of society to biological organisms , and the theory of social Darwinism, which transfers the natural principle of natural selection to society.K. Marx (the main work is "Capital") - an outstanding theorist of capitalism, who explained social development as the result of a change in formations occurring under the influence of economic and socio-political factors (method production, classes, class struggle).
The 19th century is called the “golden” age of classical sociology: new approaches to the study of society were being formed - positivism (Comte, Spencer) and Marxism (Marx, Engels); theoretical science was developed, the first scientific schools and trends were created, and sectoral sociological knowledge was born. time is called the first stage in the development of sociology and dates it to the 40-80s of the XIX century.
The evolution of sociology from the 90s of the 19th century to the 20s of the 20th century at the so-called second stage was associated with the development of methods of sociological thinking and the formation of a categorical apparatus. The professionalization and institutionalization of sociology, the creation of specialized periodicals, the growth in the number of new scientific schools testified to the entry of science into its heyday. But sociology became more complex in content and more and more acquiring a pluralistic character. The positivist doctrine of O. Comte and G. Spencer found its development in the works of the French scientist Emile Durkheim (1 the author of a functional theory based on an analysis of the functions of social institutions. In the same years, representatives of the anti-positivist approach to the study of society - humanitarianism, also declared themselves. A school of social the actions of the German sociologist Max Weber (1), who was the founder of "understanding" sociology, which, according to him, understands social action and tries to causally explain its course and results. In the development of sociology, this was a period of crisis of classical science and the search for a new worldview.
Despite the active revision of the ideas of the "fathers" of sociology, in the 20-60s of the XX century, stabilization increased in science. The rapid development of empirical sociology began, the wide dissemination and improvement of the methods and techniques of specific sociological research. US sociology came to the fore, trying to correct the "imperfections" of society with the help of empirical research. The most significant theoretical concept of this stage was the structural functionalism of the sociologist Talcott Parsons (1), which made it possible to present society as a system in all its integrity and inconsistency. Parsons enriched the theoretical developments of Comte - Spencer - Durkheim. The sociology of the United States was also represented by new theories of the humanist persuasion. A follower of Weber, Professor Charles Wright Mills (1 created the "new sociology", which laid the foundation for critical sociology and the sociology of action in the States.
The current stage in the development of sociology, which began in the mid-1960s, is characterized by both the expansion of the range of applied research and the revival of interest in theoretical sociology. The main question was about the theoretical basis of empiricism, which caused a “theoretical explosion” in the 1970s. He determined the process of differentiation of sociological knowledge without the authoritarian influence of any one theoretical concept. Therefore, the stage is represented by a variety of approaches, concepts and their authors: R. Merton - "the average value of the theory", J. Homans - the theory of social exchange, G. Garfinkel - ethnomethodology, G. Mead and G. Bloomer - the theory of symbolic interactionism, Koder - the theory conflict, etc. One of the directions of modern sociology is the study of the future, covering the general long-term prospects for the future of the Earth and humanity.
Research approaches to the study of society and the main directions of sociological thought
Theoretical sociology consists of many scientific schools, but all of them are based on two main approaches to the study and explanation of society - positivism and humanitarianism.
Positivism arose and began to dominate in the sociology of the 19th century, as opposed to speculative reasoning about society. This is a rational approach based on observation, comparison, experiment. His initial positions boil down to the following: a) nature and society are united and develop according to the same laws; b) a social organism is similar to a biological one; c) society should be studied by the same methods as nature.
The positivism of the 20th century is neopositivism. Its initial principles are much more complicated: it is naturalism (the generality of the laws of development of nature and society), scientism (accuracy, rigor and objectivity of social research methods), behaviorism (the study of a person only through open behavior), verification (the obligatory presence of an empirical basis for scientific knowledge), quantification (quantitative expression of social facts) and objectivism (freedom of sociology as a science from value judgments and connection with ideology).
On the basis of positivism and its second wave - neopositivism, the following areas of sociological thought were born, functioned and exist: naturalism(biologism and mechanism), classical Marxism structural functionalism. The positivists and followers of the 20th century regard the world as an objective reality, believing that it should be studied, discarding their values. They recognize only two forms of knowledge: empirical and logical - only through experience and the possibility of verification, and consider it necessary only to study facts, not ideas.
Humanitarianism is an approach to studying society through understanding. His initial positions are as follows: a) society is not an analogue of nature, it develops according to its own laws; b) society is not an objective structure that stands above people and is independent of them, but the sum of relationships between two or more individuals; c) the main thing, therefore, is the decoding, interpretation of the meaning, the content of this interaction; d) the main methods of this approach: the ideographic method (the study of individuals, events or objects), the method of qualitative analysis
(understanding a phenomenon, not counting it), methods of phenomenologism, i.e., knowledge of the causes and essence of social phenomena, for example, a linguistic method (studying what is available to a language), a method of understanding (knowledge of society through self-knowledge), a hermeneutics method (interpretation of meaningful human actions), etc.
Most representatives of humanism are subjectivist, rejecting "freedom from values" as impossible in sociology - a science that affects the interests of people.
The main direction of humanism is understanding sociology(classical humanism - V. Dilthey, Max Weber, P. Sorokin, etc.). Among modern versions of understanding sociology stand out:
phenomenology, the main goal of which is the analysis and description of everyday life and the states of consciousness associated with it;
symbolic interactionism, determining the behavior of people in relation to each other by generally accepted meanings-symbols (words, facial expressions, etc.);
ethnomethodology, explaining behavior by rules taken for granted and governing collisions.
Are also of interest exchange theory, where the nature of the interaction is inferred from an analysis of past experience and potential rewards and punishments; theory of social roles, used to convey their impressions, etc.
It occupies a peculiar position sociology of action. Humanitarian in essence, polyvariant in the methods of studying society, it proceeds from the idea of society as a universe of activity, its set, in which the movement of people is carried out.
The main orientations in modern sociology are evolutionist and conflictological.
Topic 3. Features of the development of domestic sociology
Questions: 1. The originality of the formation of sociological thought in Russia.
2. Periodization of the development of domestic sociology.
The peculiarity of the formation of sociological thought in Russia
Sociology- international science in nature, goals and objectives. But its development in different countries is largely determined by their originality. According to the specifics of research, one can speak in a broad sense about American, French, German and other sociological schools (or conditionally - sociology);
Domestic sociology is also specific. Its formation and evolution were due to the peculiarities of Russia itself, generated by the uniqueness of its geographical position between the West and the East, territorial scale, customs, traditions, psychology, morality, etc.
The sociological thought of Russia has been formed for centuries on its own soil, growing on the basis of Russian culture and the liberation movement. Interest in a person in society, in their joint fate, their future was manifested at two levels: mass-everyday (in folk tales and legends, for example, in The Tale of the City of Kitezh; in the works of writers and poets, in the judgments of public figures) and professional (in the theories of specialist researchers - philosophers, historians). Russian sociological thought was made up of both frankly ideologized and academic developments. The first were associated with the liberation movement and the revolutionary tradition of Russia, the second - directly with science. Domestic thought has absorbed many social utopias that are close to the forecast of judgments about the future of society and man. Until the 19th century, social utopias were vague and primitive. But in the XIX - early XX centuries. Utopias were presented both by representatives of the democratic tendency in the revolutionary tradition of Russia (A. Radishchev, A. Herzen, N. Chernyshevsky, M. Bakunin, G. Plekhanov, V. Ulyanov-Lenin, and others), and by the bearers of the autocratic tendency (P. Pestel, S. Nechaev, I. Stalin). The utopia of liberation from slavery sounded in the ode "Liberty" by A. Radishchev. He sang the Russian ideal - space and freedom. A. Herzen and N. Chernyshevsky proclaimed the utopia of Russian communal socialism, which had a significant number of adherents, including K. Marx, N. Berdyaev, M. Kalinin and others. Supporters of this utopia gave brilliant social forecasts: A. Herzen outlined the image of a dictator from the people (Stalin); N. Chernyshevsky, contrary to the prevailing opinion about him, warned about the disastrous consequences of the revolution in Russia and advocated a gradual and consistent process of introducing democracy into Russian life. G. Plekhanov predicted the people's disasters from the practical implementation of Lenin's utopia of the socialist revolution in Russia. M. Bakuyain came up with a utopia about a society developing according to the law of solidarity (without violence).
Of undoubted value is V. Lenin's utopia on economic policy (NEP)" href="/text/category/novaya_yekonomicheskaya_politika__nyep_/" rel="bookmark">new economic policy, especially in the light of events in the country at the turn of the 80-90s of XX Representatives of Russian scientific thought understood the significance of social utopias: philosophers N. Berdyaev and S. Bulgakov read special courses devoted to them at Russian universities.
Having Russian roots, domestic sociological thought, at the same time, experienced the powerful influence of the West. She was closely associated with the French Enlightenment, the English School of Economics and German Romanticism. The duality of origins determined the inconsistency of the sociological thought of Russia, which manifested itself in the confrontation between orientation towards the West (Westernizers) and towards one's own identity (Russophiles). This confrontation also characterizes modern sociology.
Russian sociological thought has become part of European culture.
Periodization of the development of domestic sociology
Sociology as a science was formed in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Its subsequent development has not been a continuous process of quality acquisition. Sociology directly depended on the conditions in the country, on the level of its democracy, therefore it experienced periods of rise and fall, prohibition, persecution and underground existence.
In the development of domestic sociology, two stages are distinguished: pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary (the milestone is 1917). The second stage, as a rule, is divided into two periods: 20-60 and 70-80, although almost every decade of the 20th century had its own characteristics.
First stage characterized by a wealth of sociological thought, a variety of theories and concepts of the development of society, social communities and man. The most famous were: the theory of the publicist and sociologist N. Danilevsky about "cultural-historical types" (civilizations), developing, in his opinion, like biological organisms; the subjectivist concept of the all-round development of the individual as a measure of progress by the sociologist and literary critic N. Mikhailovsky, who denounced Marxism from the standpoint of peasant socialism; the geographical theory of Mechnikov, who explained the unevenness of social development by changing geographical conditions and considered social solidarity as a criterion of social progress; the doctrine of social progress by M. Kovalevsky, a historian, lawyer, sociologist-evolutionist, engaged in empirical research; the theory of social stratification and social mobility of the sociologist P. Sorokin; the positivist views of the follower of O. Comte, the Russian sociologist E. Roberti, and others. These developments brought their authors world fame. The practical deeds of Russian sociologists, for example, compiling zemstvo statistics, benefited the fatherland. In pre-revolutionary sociology, five main directions coexisted: politically oriented sociology, general and historical sociology, legal, psychological and systematic sociology. Theoretical sociology of the late 19th century was influenced by the ideas of K. Marx, but it was not comprehensive. Sociology in Russia developed both as a science and as an academic discipline. In terms of its level at that time, it was not inferior to the western one.
Second phase development of domestic sociology is complex and heterogeneous.
Its first decade (1) was the period of recognition of sociology by the new government and its certain rise: the institutionalization of science was carried out, departments of sociology were created at the Petrograd and Yaroslavl universities, the Sociological Institute was opened (1919) and the first faculty of social sciences in Russia with a sociological department at the university Petrograd (1920); a scientific degree in sociology was introduced, an extensive sociological literature (both scientific and educational) began to be published. discussions in it about the relationship between sociology and historical materialism.During these years, the problems of the working class and the peasantry, the city and the countryside, population and migration are being studied, empirical research is being carried out that has received international recognition.
In the 1930s, sociology was declared a bourgeois pseudoscience and banned. Fundamental and applied research was discontinued (until the early 60s). Sociology was one of the first sciences to fall victim to the Stalinist regime. The totalitarian nature of political power, the harsh suppression of all forms of dissent outside the party, and the prevention of diversity of opinions within the party halted the development of the science of society.
Its revival began only at the end of the 50s, after the 20th Congress of the CPSU, and even then under the guise of economic and philosophical sciences. A paradoxical situation has arisen: sociological empirical research has received the right of citizenship, while sociology as a science has not. Materials were published on the positive aspects of the country's social development. The alarming signals of sociologists about the destruction of the natural environment, about the growing alienation of power from the people, about nationalist tendencies were ignored and even condemned. But even in these years, science moved forward: there appeared works on general theory and on specific sociological analysis, summarizing the works of Soviet sociologists; the first steps were taken to participate in international comparative studies. In the 1960s, sociological institutions were created, and the Soviet Sociological Association was founded.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the attitude towards Russian sociology was contradictory. On the one hand, it received semi-recognition, on the other hand, it was hampered in every possible way, being directly dependent on party decisions. Sociological research was ideologically oriented. But the organizational formation of sociology continued: in 1968 the Institute for Social Research was established (since 1988 - the Institute of Sociology of the Academy of Sciences). Departments of social research appeared in the institutes of Moscow, Novosibirsk, Sverdlovsk and other cities; textbooks for universities began to be published; Since 1974, the journal Sociological Research (later Socis) began to appear. By the end of this period. administrative-bureaucratic interference in sociology began to intensify, and the mechanisms were almost the same as in the 1930s. Theoretical sociology was again denied, the quantity and quality of research decreased.
The consequences of this second "invasion" in sociology could have been the most tragic for science, if not for the new situation in the country. Sociology was restored to civil rights in 1986. The issue of its development was decided at the state level - the task was set to develop fundamental and applied research in the country. The sociology of modern Russia is being strengthened in terms of content and organization, it has been revived as an academic discipline, but there are still many difficulties in its path. Sociology today is accumulating material about society at a turning point and forecasting its further development.
Topic 4. Society as an object of study in sociology
Questions: 1. The concept of "society" and its research interpretations.
2. Main problems of megasociology.
3. Society as a social system. Its structure.
The concept of "society" and its research interpretations
The sociological thought of the past explained the category "society" in different ways. In ancient times, it was identified with the concept of "state". This can be traced, for example, in the judgments of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. The only exception was Aristotle, who believed that the family and the village as special types of communication are different from the state, and that there is a different structure of social ties, in which friendship relations as the highest form of mutual communication come to the fore.
In the Middle Ages, the idea of identifying society and the state again reigned. Only in modern times in the XY1 century, in the works of the Italian thinker N. Machiavelli, the idea of the state as one of the states of society was expressed. In the 17th century, the English philosopher T. Hobbes formed the theory of the “social contract”, the essence of which was the transfer of part of their freedoms by the members of the society to the state, which is the guarantor of compliance with the contract; The 18th century was characterized by a clash of two approaches to the definition of society: one approach interpreted society as an artificial formation that contradicted the natural inclinations of people, the other - as the development and expression of natural inclinations and feelings of a person. At the same time, the economists Smith and Hume defined society as a labor exchange union of people connected by the division of labor, and the philosopher I. Kant - as Humanity, taken in historical development. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of the idea of civil society. It was expressed by G. Hegel, who called civil society the sphere of private interests, distinct from the state ones.
The founder of sociology, O. Comte, considered society as a natural phenomenon, and its evolution as a natural process of growth and differentiation of parts and functions. Professional sociologists of the 19th century filled the concept of "society" with new content with a greater reflection of sociality. In their ideas, society was a collection of beliefs and feelings, a system of various social functions connected by certain ones. relations, an all-encompassing reality that has intrinsic value, etc. In the sociology of the 20th century, this concept is interpreted in different ways, but definitions of society as a functionally integrated social system, as a system engulfed in conflicts, take advantage.
"Society" is the fundamental category of modern sociology, which interprets it in a broad sense as a part of the material world isolated from nature, which is a historically developing set of all ways of interaction and forms of unification of people, in which their comprehensive dependence on each other is expressed, and in a narrow sense - as a structurally or genetically defined genus, species, subspecies of communication.
The main problems of megasociology
Sociological theories differ in the level of generalization to a general theory (megasociology), middle-level theory (macro-sociology, studying large social communities) and micro-level theory (microsociology, studying interpersonal relationships in everyday life). Society as a whole. is the object of study of general sociological theory. It is considered in science according to the following main problem blocks in their logical sequence: What is society? - Does it change? “How does it change? - What are the sources of change? - Who determines these changes? - What are the types and patterns of changing societies? In other words, megasociology is dedicated to explaining social change.
Problem block - What is a society? - includes a set of questions about the structure of society, its components, about the factors that ensure its integrity, about the processes taking place in it. They find their coverage in numerous versions of scientists: in the theories (Spencer, Marx, Weber, Dahrendorf and many other researchers) of the socio-demographic and social class structure of society, social stratification, ethnic structure, etc. The problem of changes in society implies two questions: Is society evolving? Is its development reversible or irreversible? The answer to them divides the existing general sociological concepts into two classes: development theory and theories of historical circulation. The former were developed by the Enlighteners of the New Age, the theorists of positivism, Marxism and others, who proved the irreversibility of the development of society. The latter are permeated with the idea of cyclicality, that is, the movement of society as a whole or its subsystems in a vicious circle with a constant return to its original state and subsequent cycles of revival and decline. This idea was reflected in the judgments of Plato and Aristotle on the forms of the state, in the concept of "cultural-historical types" by N. Danilevsky, in the theory of "morphology of cultures" by O. Spengler, in A. Toynbee's version of closed civilizations, in the social philosophy of P. Sorokin, etc.
The next problematic block reveals the direction of the development of society by raising questions about whether society, a person, relations between people, relations with the natural environment are improving, or the opposite process is taking place, i.e., the degradation of society, a person and relations with the environment. The content of the answers to these questions divides the available questions into two groups: theories of progress(optimistic) and regression theories(pessimistic). The former include positivism, Marxism, theories of technological determinism, social Darwinism, the latter include a number of theories of bureaucracy, elites, pessimistic versions of technological determinism, partly the concept of L. Gumilyov, J. Gobineau and others. The problem of the mechanism of progress, its conditionality, its sources and driving forces is revealed in megasociology by single-factor and multi-factor theories, theories of evolution and revolution.
One factor theories narrow the sources and causes of progress to any one force, absolutizing it, for example, the biological factor (biologism, organicism, social Darwinism), the ideal factor (Weber's theories).
multifactorial theories, highlighting one determinant, they strive to take into account the impact of all other factors (theories of Marx, neo-Marxists, etc.). The problem of the relationship between the importance of the individual and the role of social communities in the process of social change is associated with those theories that either give preference to communities as the main driving force (statism, fascism, leftist pseudo-Marxism, ethno-nationalism), or emphasize the priority of the individual over any communities (positivism, socialism of Marx, neo-Marxism). The problems of the type and model of the development of society are revealed in the theories of their absolutization (reductionism) and synthesis (complex theories). On the issue of periodization of the development of society, two approaches are most widely used in megasociology: formational(Marx) and civilizational(Morgan, Engels, Tennis, Aron, Bell and many others).
Society as a social system. Its structure
Society is a system / since it is a set of elements that are interconnected and mutually related and form a single whole, capable of changing its structure in interaction with external conditions. This is social system, i.e. associated with the life of people and their relationships. Society has an internal form of organization, that is, its own structure. It is complex and the identification of its components requires an analytical approach using different criteria. According to the form of life manifestation of people, society is divided into economic, political and spiritual subsystems, which are called in sociology social systems (spheres of public life). According to the subject of public relations in the structure of society, demographic, ethnic, class, settlement, family, professional and other subsystems are identified. According to the type of social connections of its members in society, social groups, social institutions, a system of social control and social organizations are distinguished.
Lecture 1. The subject of sociology
Sociology, translated into Russian, means "the science of society." The key concept of sociology is "community", that is, a group, collective, nation, etc. Communities come in different levels and types, for example, a family, humanity as a whole. Sociology studies various problems related to the community, i.e. social problems. Sociology is the science of social structure, social interaction, social relationships, social relationships, social transformations. Sociology also studies people's attitudes to various problems of society, explores public opinion. Sociology, as a science, has a certain structure. Depending on the content, sociology consists of three parts 1. General sociology. 2. History of sociology and modern sociological theories. Works on sociology of past years are not an archive, but an important source of scientific knowledge, information about important social problems. Various sociological theories of modernity make it possible to interpret problems in different ways, to find new facets and aspects of the phenomena being studied. If earlier there was the only true, infallible Marxist-Leninist sociology, now there is no ultimate truth. Various theories compete with each other, striving to more accurately and fully reflect reality. 3. Methodology of sociological research. This part deals with the tasks of how, in what ways to conduct research.
Depending on the type of community that sociology studies, science is divided into macrosociology and microsociology. Macrosociology studies society as a whole, large social groups such as a class, nation, people, etc. Microsociology studies small communities such as a family, a work team, a student group, a sports team. Depending on the level of consideration of social problems, sociology is divided into: 1. social philosophy, which considers the most general social patterns. 2. Theory of the middle level. Here, individual social processes are theoretically considered, for example, the social development of a team; separate social and demographic troupes, for example, youth, workers; individual social phenomena, problems, for example, crime, strikes. The theory of the middle level, which studies a single problem, phenomenon, process is called sectoral sociology. There are dozens of branch sociologies, for example, the sociology of youth, the sociology of crime, the sociology of the city, etc. 3. Empirical and applied sociology. It deals with the specific problems of individual communities. These problems are studied empirically, that is, empirically, with the help of surveys, observations, and other methods. Applied means necessary, useful for the specific needs of the economy, politics, culture. Applied sociology serves as the basis for the creation of social technologies, that is, special developments that contain recommendations on how to act, what to do, what to say in specific problem situations.
Sociology studies social dynamics, that is, the forms and methods of development of society. A revolution is distinguished as a relatively quick, radical break in the social order. Evolution is the slow, gradual development of society, when each new stage appears after the maturation of objective conditions. Transformation is a process of transition from one stage of development of society to another. Currently, Ukraine is experiencing a social transformation, i.e., the transition from a planned economy and an authoritarian political system to a market economy and a democratic system.
Thus, sociology is a science that seeks to study social relationships comprehensively. Knowledge of sociology makes it possible to more rationally take into account the behavior of people in various problematic situations in the life of society.
Sociology is closely related to other sciences. Sociology and mathematics. Sociology is a specific science of society. It seeks to support its provisions with quantitative data. In addition, sociology bases practically all conclusions on probabilistic judgments. For example, if a sociologist claims that an engineer is more cultured than workers, this means that this judgment is true with a probability higher than 50%. There can be many concrete examples when some worker is more cultured than some engineer. But, the probability of such cases is less than 50%. Thus, sociology is closely related to the theory of probability and mathematical statistics. For the purposes of social modeling, the entire mathematical apparatus is used. Mathematical programming and computer technology are used to process sociological information. Psychology. By studying human behavior, sociology is in close contact with psychology. General problems are concentrated within the framework of social psychology.
Philosophy provides sociology with knowledge of the most general laws of society, social cognition, and human activity. Economics allows you to study deeper the causes of social relations, various situations in the life of society. Social statistics, social phenomena and processes. Sociological marketing allows you to more effectively regulate market relations. An extensive field of human relations in production is studied by the sociology of labor. Geography is associated with sociology, when the behavior of people, ethnic communities is explained taking into account the environment. It matters whether people live on the ocean, rivers, in the mountains, in the desert to explain the nature of social communities. There are theories linking social conflicts with a period of restless sun, cosmic factors. Sociology is associated with legal disciplines in explaining the causes of crime, social deviations, and studying the personality of criminals. There are branch sociological disciplines: sociology of law, sociology of crime, criminology.
Sociology is connected with history in explaining the historical roots of social phenomena. There is also a sociology of history, when sociological problems are studied on the basis of past centuries. For example, social relationships and features of social behavior are studied. Sociology is associated with various activities through its specific methods of studying public opinion. The role of sociology in society. In determining the role of sociology in society, there are two positions that have their own tradition. So, O. Comte believed that a positive science of society should be useful, used for the purposes of progress. Whereas G. Spencer believed that sociology should not interfere in the course of social processes. The sociologist must observe and analyze society and draw his own conclusions about its patterns. There is no need to interfere in public affairs. Evolution itself will pave the way for society to progress without outside interference. In modern sociology, a positivist attitude towards sociology is more common. It should serve the cause of the transformation of society, social reforms, and promote optimal social management. In a democratic society, government, the adoption of important decisions for society should be based on public opinion, which is studied by sociology. Without sociological research, public opinion will not be able to perform its inherent functions of control and consultation. Sociology will give public opinion an institutional status, thanks to which it becomes an institution of civil society. Sociology allows you to understand the processes taking place in society. An important feature of modern society is the awareness of the goals and consequences of its activities, understanding the essence and properties of society, which allows you to consciously relate to your activities. This distinguishes modern society from traditional, in which social processes are spontaneous and unconscious. Thus, the role of sociology in society is as follows. 1. Sociology contributes to the democratic transformation of society through the study of public opinion and contributing to its institutionalization. 2. Sociology contributes to a deeper understanding of the essence of social processes, which allows a conscious approach to social activity. 3. Sociology raises the level of rationality of social activity at all levels of social organization.
Lecture 2. Culture of sociological thinking
An important task of the course of sociology is the formation of a culture of sociological thinking. It is also an important component of the culture of the modern leader. The culture of sociological thinking depends on the extent to which the specifics of sociology are assimilated. The sociologist's professional awareness and the ability to actively use the main research methods are important. An important aspect of sociological thinking involves the ability to operate with quantitative data, compose research documents, conduct empirical research, process them and be able to interpret the results obtained. It is necessary to understand that sociology relies on quantitative data, that the results obtained are of a probabilistic nature. Objectivity, the lack of desire to adjust the results to ordered parameters or pre-prepared conclusions characterizes the culture of thinking of a sociologist. The specificity of sociological thinking implies an interest in mass processes and phenomena, in those patterns that are inherent not to an individual, but to a group, collective, community. The sociologist's interest in the interrelationships of social phenomena and processes inherent in different, intersecting planes of social space, for example, in the connections between economic, political, social, and cultural processes, is important. Interest in public opinion and attention to the procedural aspect of its study, such as sampling, sampling error is an important component of sociological thinking. The sociologist strives for comparability of their results with data from similar studies. The culture of sociological thinking is alien to narrow empiricism, and excessive abstractness of judgments without a certain correspondence with positive knowledge is also unacceptable. The specificity of sociology presupposes a combination of social responsibility, interest in the fate of society, and the rigor of analytical judgments based on scientifically substantiated empirical data. A sociologist must comply with ethical requirements, such as respect for respondents, confidentiality, and not act to the detriment of respondents.
The lecture notes are a selection of material for the course "Sociology", covers the main topics of the program. The publication is intended for students of secondary and higher educational institutions. The book will be an excellent assistant in preparing for a test or exam, as well as for writing term papers and tests.
Davydov S. A.
This manual is intended for students of secondary and higher educational institutions and is a summary of lectures on the course "Sociology". With the help of the material contained in the abstract, the student will study the main questions of the course, which will help him pass the exam or test.
LECTURE No. 1. Sociology as a science
1. Subject, object, functions and methods of sociology
Term sociology comes from two words: the Latin "societes" - "society" and the Greek "logos" - "word", "concept", "doctrine". Thus, sociology can be defined as the science of society.
The same definition of this term is given by the famous American scientist J. Smelser. However, this definition is rather abstract, since many other sciences also study society in various aspects.
In order to understand the features of sociology, it is necessary to determine the subject and object of this science, as well as its functions and research methods.
object any science is a part of the external reality chosen for study, which has a certain completeness and integrity. As already noted, the object of sociology is society, but at the same time science studies not its individual elements, but the whole society as an integral system. The object of sociology is a set of properties, connections and relationships that are called social. concept social can be considered in two senses: in a broad sense, it is analogous to the concept of "public"; in a narrow sense, the social represents only an aspect of social relations. Social relations develop between members of society when they occupy a certain place in its structure and are endowed with a social status.
Therefore, the object of sociology is social connections, social interaction, social relations and the way they are organized.
Subject science is the result of a theoretical study of a selected part of external reality. The subject of sociology cannot be defined as unambiguously as the object. This is due to the fact that during the historical development of sociology, views on the subject of this science have undergone significant changes.
Today we can distinguish the following approaches to the definition of the subject of sociology:
1) society as a special entity, different from individuals and the state and subject to its own natural laws (O. Comte) ;
2) social facts, which should be understood as collective in all manifestations (E. Durkheim) ;
3) social behavior as a person's attitude, i.e., an internally or externally manifested position focused on an act or abstaining from it (M. Weber) ;
4) scientific study of society as a social system and its constituent structural elements (base and superstructure) ( Marxism).
In modern domestic scientific literature, the Marxist understanding of the subject of sociology is preserved. It should be noted that this is fraught with a certain danger, since the representation of society in the form of a basis and a superstructure leads to ignoring the individual and universal values, denying the world of culture.
Therefore, a more rational subject of sociology should be considered society as a set of social communities, layers, groups, individuals interacting with each other. Moreover, the main mechanism of this interaction is goal-setting.
So, taking into account all these features, we can determine that sociology- this is the science of general and specific social patterns of organization, functioning and development of society, ways, forms and methods of their implementation, in the actions and interactions of members of society.
Like any science, sociology performs certain functions in society, among which the following can be distinguished:
1) cognitive(cognitive) - sociological research contributes to the accumulation of theoretical material about various areas of social life;
2) critical- data from sociological research allows you to test and evaluate social ideas and practical actions;
3) applied- sociological research is always aimed at solving practical problems and can always be used to optimize society;
4) regulatory- the theoretical material of sociology can be used by the state to ensure social order and exercise control;
5) predictive- based on the data of sociological research, it is possible to make forecasts for the development of society and prevent the negative consequences of social actions;
6) ideological- sociological developments can be used by various social forces to form their position;
7) humanitarian- sociology can contribute to the improvement of social relations.
Another hallmark of sociology as a science is its range of research methods. In sociology method- this is a way of constructing and substantiating sociological knowledge, a set of techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge of social reality.
There are three levels of methods for studying social phenomena and processes.
First level covers general scientific methods used in all humanitarian fields of knowledge (dialectical, systemic, structural-functional).
Second level reflects the methods of related sociology of the humanities (normative, comparative, historical, etc.).
Methods of the first and second levels are based on the universal principles of knowledge. These include the principles of historicism, objectivism and consistency.
The principle of historicism involves the study of social phenomena in the context of historical development, their comparison with various historical events.
The principle of objectivism means the study of social phenomena in all their contradictions; It is unacceptable to study only positive or only negative facts. The principle of consistency implies the need to study social phenomena in an inseparable unity, to identify cause-and-effect relationships.
To third level include methods that characterize applied sociology (survey, observation, analysis of documents, etc.).
Actually sociological methods of the third level are based on the use of a complex mathematical apparatus (probability theory, mathematical statistics).
2. Sociology in the system of the humanities
It is quite obvious that if the object of sociology is society, then it is in close contact with other social and humanitarian sciences that study this area of reality. It cannot develop in isolation from them. Moreover, sociology includes a general sociological theory that can serve as the theory and methodology of all other social and human sciences.
Sociological methods of studying society, its elements, members and their interactions are actively used today in many other sciences, for example, political science, psychology, anthropology. At the same time, the dependence of sociology itself on these sciences is obvious, since they significantly enrich its theoretical base.
Another significant reason for the close relationship between many social and humanitarian sciences, including sociology, is their common origin. Thus, many independent social sciences originated within the framework of social philosophy, which, in turn, was a branch of general philosophy. Close connection sociology and social philosophy manifests itself primarily in a very wide area of coincidence of the object of study. However, there are significant differences between these sciences, which make it possible to single out sociology as an independent science. First of all, it is the subject of research.
If sociology is aimed at studying the social relationships of members of society, then social philosophy explores social life from the point of view of a worldview approach. Even more, these sciences are different in the method of research of their subject area.
Thus, social philosophy is focused on general philosophical methods, which is reflected in the theoretical nature of the research results. Sociology, on the other hand, mainly uses sociological methods proper, which makes the results of the study more practical.
However, these differences only emphasize the independence of sociology as a science, but do not diminish the importance of its relationship with social philosophy. Based on specific historical realities, social philosophy seeks to identify general trends and patterns.
Sociology, using the knowledge of these regularities, analyzes the place and role of a person in the life of society, his interaction with other members of society within various social institutions, explores the specifics of communities of different types and levels.
Connection sociology with history is also the closest and most necessary. In addition to the common object of study, these sciences also have common research problems.
So, both sociology and history in the process of research are confronted with the presence of certain social patterns, on the one hand, and with the existence of individual, unique phenomena and processes that significantly change the trajectory of historical movement, on the other. The successful solution of this problem in both sciences is a priority, and therefore each of them can use the successful experience of the other.
In addition, the historical method is quite in demand in sociology.
The use of the achievements of sociology in historical science is also of great importance, since it allows historians to analyze historical phenomena from the standpoint of a descriptive-factual approach.
The accumulated statistical material makes it possible to more fully reveal the essence of historical processes and phenomena and rise to broad and deep historical generalizations.
An important component of social life is material production. This results in a close relationship sociology with economics. Moreover, in the system of sociological knowledge there is such a discipline as economic sociology.
The place of a person in the labor system has a significant impact on his position in the social structure. On the other hand, under the influence of various social processes and changes, there is a change in the labor activity itself.
Another science related to sociology is psychology. The area of intersection of these sciences is primarily the problem of man in society.
However, despite the close relationship of the object of sciences, their subjects are largely different.
Psychology is mainly focused on the study of the personal level of the individual, his consciousness and self-awareness, the scope of sociology is the problems of relations between individuals as members of society, i.e., the interpersonal level. To the extent that a scientist studies a person as a subject and an object of social connection, interactions and relationships, considers personal value orientations from social positions, role expectations, etc., he acts as a sociologist. This difference led to the emergence of a new discipline - social psychology which is still part of sociology.
There is also a close relationship between sociology and political science. The nature of this relationship is determined by the fact that, firstly, social communities, social organizations and institutions are the most important subjects and objects of policy; secondly, political activity is one of the main forms of life of the individual and his communities, directly affecting social changes in society; thirdly, politics as a very broad, complex and multifaceted phenomenon manifests itself in all spheres of public life and largely determines the development of society as a whole.
In addition, the field of study of both of these sciences includes such a social phenomenon as civil society. At the same time, it must be remembered that political life is always based on social patterns, the analysis of which is necessary in the study of political processes and phenomena. So, it is quite obvious that sociology is in close relationship with the system of social sciences and humanities and is its element.
3. Structure of sociology
Sociology is a differentiated and structured system of knowledge. System - an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming a certain integrity. It is precisely in the clear structuring and integrity of the system of sociology that the internal institutionalization of science is manifested, characterizing it as independent. Sociology as a system includes the following elements:
1) social facts- scientifically substantiated knowledge obtained in the course of the study of any fragment of reality. Social facts are established through other elements of the system of sociology;
2) general and special sociological theories- systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at resolving the issue of the possibilities and limits of knowledge of society in certain aspects and developing within certain theoretical and methodological areas;
3) branch sociological theories- systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at describing individual spheres of social life, substantiating the program of specific sociological research, providing interpretation of empirical data;
4) data collection and analysis methods– technologies for obtaining empirical material and its primary generalization.
However, in addition to the horizontal structure, systems of sociological knowledge are clearly differentiated into three independent levels.
1. Theoretical sociology(level of fundamental research). The task is to consider society as an integral organism, to reveal the place and role of social ties in it, to formulate the basic principles of sociological knowledge, the main methodological approaches to the analysis of social phenomena.
At this level, the essence and nature of the social phenomenon, its historical specifics, and the relationship with various aspects of social life are revealed.
2. Special sociological theories. At this level, there are branches of social knowledge that have as their subject the study of relatively independent, specific subsystems of the social whole and social processes.
Types of special social theories:
1) theories that study the laws of development of individual social communities;
2) theories that reveal the laws and mechanisms of the functioning of communities in certain areas of public life;
3) theories that analyze individual elements of the social mechanism.
3. Social engineering. The level of practical implementation of scientific knowledge in order to design various technical means and improve existing technologies.
In addition to these levels, macro-, meso- and microsociology are distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge.
As part of macrosociology society is studied as an integral system, as a single organism, complex, self-governing, self-regulating, consisting of many parts, elements. Macrosociology primarily studies: the structure of society (which elements make up the structure of early society and which elements of modern society), the nature of changes in society.
As part of meso-sociology groups of people (classes, nations, generations) existing in society, as well as stable forms of life organization created by people, called institutions: the institution of marriage, family, church, education, state, etc.
At the level of microsociology, the goal is to understand the activities of an individual, motives, the nature of actions, incentives and obstacles.
However, these levels cannot be considered separately from each other as independently existing elements of social knowledge. On the contrary, these levels must be considered in close relationship, since understanding the overall social picture, social patterns is possible only on the basis of the behavior of individual subjects of society and interpersonal communication.
In turn, social forecasts about a particular development of social processes and phenomena, the behavior of members of society are possible only on the basis of the disclosure of universal social patterns.
Theoretical and empirical sociology are also distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge. The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it relies on empirical research, but theoretical knowledge prevails over empirical, since it is theoretical knowledge that ultimately determines progress in any science and in sociology too. Theoretical sociology is a set of diverse concepts that develop aspects of the social development of society and give their interpretation.
empirical sociology is more of an applied nature and is aimed at solving urgent practical issues of public life.
Empirical sociology, unlike theoretical sociology, is not aimed at creating a comprehensive picture of social reality.
This problem is solved by theoretical sociology by creating universal sociological theories. There is no core in theoretical sociology that has remained stable since its founding.
There are many concepts and theories in theoretical sociology: the materialistic concept of the development of society by K. Marx is based on the priority of economic factors in the development of society (historical materialism); there are various concepts of stratification, industrial development of societies; convergence, etc.
However, it must be remembered that certain social theories are not confirmed in the course of the historical development of society. Some of them are not realized at this or that stage of social development, others do not stand the test of time.
The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it solves the problems of studying society on the basis of scientific methods of cognition of reality.
In each of these levels of knowledge, the subject of research is specified.
This allows us to consider sociology as a system of scientific knowledge.
The functioning of this system is aimed at obtaining scientific knowledge both about the entire social organism and about its individual elements that play a different role in the process of its existence.
Thus, sociology is a multidimensional and multilevel system of scientific knowledge, which consists of elements that concretize the general knowledge about the subject of science, research methods and ways of its design.
Like any other science, sociology has its own categorical apparatus. The categorical or conceptual apparatus is one of the most important questions for any science. Categories, concepts of each science primarily reflect the quality of objective reality, which is the subject of this science. The subject matter of sociology is social phenomena. Since social phenomena always have social qualities, the categories of sociology are aimed primarily at characterizing these qualities.
Social characteristics are always dynamic and appear in the most varied shades of the "whole", that is, the social phenomenon itself as a whole. This unity and diversity, the constancy and mobility of any social phenomenon in its specific state is reflected in the relevant categories, concepts and laws of sociology.
Among the most used categories of sociology, one can single out society, stratification, mobility, a person, community, social, etc. The system of categories and concepts in sociology has a complex structure and subordinate dependence of concepts.
social law - it is an expression of the essential, universal, and necessary connection of social phenomena and processes, above all the connections of people's social activities or their own social actions. There are general and specific laws in sociology. The general laws of sociology are the subject of study of philosophy. The specific laws of sociology are studied precisely by sociology and constitute its methodological basis. In addition to this classification, there are other types of laws that differ on the following grounds:
By duration:
1) laws characteristic of the social system in any period of its existence (the law of value and commodity-money relations);
2) laws that are characteristic only for one or more social systems that differ in specific properties (the law of transition from one type of society to another).
By way of manifestation:
1) dynamic- determine the dynamics (direction, forms, factors) of social changes, fix a clear sequence of social phenomena in the process of change;
2) statistical- reflect the general trends of social phenomena, regardless of the ongoing changes, characterize social phenomena as a whole, and not their specific manifestations;
3) causal- fix the existing causal relationships between various social phenomena;
4) functional- fix strictly repeating and empirically observed connections between social phenomena.
However, despite the rather extensive theoretical material, the question of the laws of sociology is very acute. The fact is that in the course of historical development, many historical events went beyond the existing laws. Therefore, it can be argued that laws in fact turn out to be only a description of probable development trends.
This is an important argument of opponents of the possibility of creating universal universal sociological laws.
Therefore, today it is customary to talk not about sociological laws, but about sociological patterns.
These patterns are based on the existence in society of determinants that determine the life of society: power, ideology, economics.
A typology of social patterns can be made in five categories, which reflect the forms of communication existing between social phenomena:
1) regularities that fix the unchanging links between social phenomena, their mutual conditionality. i.e. if there is a phenomenon A, then there must necessarily be a phenomenon B;
2) patterns that fix the trends in the development of social phenomena, reflecting the impact of changes in social reality on the internal structure of a social object;
3) regularities that establish regularities between the elements of social subjects that determine its functioning (functional regularities) (example: the more actively students work in the classroom, the better they master the educational material);
4) patterns that reinforce causal relationships between social phenomena (causal patterns) (example: a necessary condition for increasing the birth rate in the country is the improvement of social and living conditions for women);
5) patterns that establish the likelihood of links between social phenomena (probabilistic patterns) (example: the growth of women's economic independence increases the likelihood of divorces).
At the same time, it must be remembered that social patterns are implemented in a concrete form - in the activities of people. And each individual person carries out his activities in the specific conditions of society, in the conditions of specific socio-political or production activities, in the system of which he occupies a certain production and social position.
If we observe one person, we will not see the law. If we observe a set, then, taking into account the deviations of each individual in one direction or another, we obtain the resulting, i.e., regularity.
Thus, it can be argued that the objectivity of social regularity is a series of cumulative actions of millions of people.
5. Basic paradigms of sociology
First of all, it must be pointed out that paradigm- this is a set of basic provisions and principles that underlie a particular theory, which have a special categorical apparatus and are recognized by a group of scientists.
For the first time, the term "paradigm" was introduced into scientific circulation by an American philosopher and historian of science. T. Kuhn . Based on this definition, it can be argued that the concept of a paradigm is wider than the concept of a theory. Sometimes a paradigm is understood to mean major theories or groups of theories, as well as generally recognized achievements in a given field of science.
It should also be noted that the presence of several paradigms in sociology also confirms its status as an independent science. All sociological paradigms can be divided into three levels: macroparadigms, microparadigms and universal general paradigms. In addition to this classification, there are others.
One of the most common among them is the classification of the Russian sociologist G. V. Osipova , who singled out the following groups of sociological paradigms:
1) paradigms social factors(structural functionalism and the theory of social conflicts);
2) paradigms social definitions(symbolic interactionalism and ethnomethodology);
3) paradigms social behavior(theories of exchange and social action).
In Western sociological thought today there are five main paradigms: functionalism, conflict theory, exchange theory, symbolic interactionalism, ethnomethodology. Thus, at the moment there is no general scientific opinion about the system of sociological paradigms. However, it is necessary to dwell in detail on the characteristics of the most common paradigms in sociology.
The paradigm of social conflict. The theory of conflict, the founder of which is considered Georg Simmel , in sociology was developed by a number of researchers: R. Dahrendorf (Germany), L. Koser (USA), K. Boulding (USA), M. Crozier , A. Touraine (France), Y. Galtung (Norway), etc.
Supporters of this theory consider conflict as a natural phenomenon of social life.
Its basis is the objectively existing differentiation in society. The conflict performs a stimulating function in society, creating prerequisites for the development of society.
However, not all conflicts play a positive role in society, so the state is entrusted with the function of controlling conflicts so that they do not develop into a state of increased social tension.
Theory of social exchange. This paradigm was developed most intensively by American researchers. J. Homans, P. Blau, R. Emerson.
The essence of the paradigm is that the functioning of a person in society is based on the exchange of various social benefits. The interaction between the subjects of social relations has a value-normative character.
This concept is intermediate between macrosociological and microsociological paradigms. This is precisely its main value.
Symbolic internationalism. This paradigm was also developed within the American sociological schools. J. Mead, G. Bloomer, T. Shibutani, T. Partland and others. The basis of symbolic internationalism is the assertion that people interact through the interpretation of symbols and signs.
Social progress is considered by sociologists as the development and change of social meanings that do not have a strict causal conditionality, depending more on the subjects of interaction than on objective reasons.
Ethnomethodology. A paradigm closely related to symbolic internationalism (it is also based on the study of social interaction) was developed by the American sociologist G. Garfinkel . The basis of this paradigm is the study of the meanings that people attach to social phenomena.
This concept arose as a result of the expansion of the methodological base of sociology and the inclusion in it of methods for studying various communities and primitive cultures and translating them into the language of procedures for analyzing modern social and cultural phenomena and processes.
Neo-Marxist paradigm. It was developed by a number of representatives of the Frankfurt School - M. Horkheimer, T. Adorno, G. Marcuse, J. Habermas . The neo-Marxist concept is based on such a social phenomenon as alienation, which is considered as a socio-economic phenomenon. This paradigm has become a revision of the foundations of Marxism and, above all, the desire to justify the gap between “labor” and “interaction” in the sense that the first as the dominant type of relationship is being replaced by the universal interaction of people in all spheres of life.
Of course, the wealth of paradigms of sociology is not exhausted by this list. However, today they are the leaders in sociological research and the construction of sociological theories. Particular attention in modern sociological paradigms is paid to interpersonal interactions, the dynamics of personality development, changes in social meanings and meanings that reveal the transformation of broad social structures.
In general, it should be noted that in modern sociology a tendency towards pluralism of various paradigms is very clearly manifested, which is expressed in increased differentiation of the system of sociological knowledge. This feature sharply poses the problem of developing and implementing a single theoretical and methodological line in sociology. This fact allows us to speak of sociology as a "multi-paradigm" science.
Sociology as a science about society. Subject and objectives of the course.
Literature:
1) Sociology / G. V. Osipov et al. M: Thought, 1990.
2) Marxist-Leninist sociology. / Ed. N.I. Dryakhlov. M.: Publishing House of Moscow University, 1989
3) The system of sociology. Pitirim Sorokin, 1920 (1941).
4) Brief Dictionary of Sociology.-M.: Politizdat, 1988
5) The subject and structure of sociological science, sociological research, 1981. No.-1.p.90.
6) The basis of sociology. Ed. Saratov University, 1992.
Plan.
one). Sociology as a science of society
2) Object and subject of sociological science.
3) Sociology in the system of social and human sciences.
Sociology as a science of society
The term "sociology" comes from the Latin word "societas" (society) and the Greek "hoyos" (word, doctrine). From which it follows that "sociology" is the science of society in the literal sense of the word.
At all stages of history, mankind has tried to comprehend society, to express its attitude towards it. (Plato, Aristotle) But the concept of “sociology” was introduced into scientific circulation French philosopher Auguste Comte in the 30s the last century. As a science, sociology was formed in the 19th century in Europe. Moreover, scientists writing in French and German participated most intensively in its development. English. Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857) and then the Englishman Herbert Spencer for the first time substantiated the need for separating social knowledge into an independent scientific discipline, defined the subject of the new science and formulated specific methods inherent only to it. Auguste Comte was a positivist; a supporter of a theory that was supposed to become as demonstrative and generally valid as natural scientific theories, should be based only on the method of observation, comparative, historical and resist speculative reasoning about society. This contributed to the fact that sociology immediately became an imperial science, a science tied to the earth. Comte's point of view on sociology as a science identical to social science dominated literature until the end of the 19th century.
At the end of 19 - early. 20th century in the scientific studies of society, along with the economic, demographic, legal and other aspects, the social one also began to stand out. In this regard, the subject of sociology becomes narrower and begins to be reduced to the study of the social aspects of social development.
The first sociologist who gave a narrow interpretation of sociological science was Emile Durkheim (1858 -1917) - a French sociologist and philosopher, the creator of the so-called "French sociological school". relations of social life, i.e. independent, standing among other social sciences.
The institutionalization of sociology in our country began after the adoption of the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars in May 1918 "On the socialist academy of social sciences", where a special item was written ".. one of the priorities is to put a number of social studies at the Petorgrad and Yaroslavl Universities". In 1919 the Sociobiological Institute was established. In 1920, the first faculty of social sciences in Russia was formed at Petrograd University with a department of sociology, headed by Pitirim Sorokin.
During this period, an extensive sociological literature of a theoretical profile was published. Its main direction is to reveal the correlations between Russian sociological thought and the sociology of Marxism. In this regard, various sociological schools are observed in the development of sociology in Russia. The book by N.I. Bukharin (Theory of historical materialism: A popular textbook on Marxist sociology, Moscow - 1923), in which sociology was identified with historical materialism and turned into an integral part of philosophy. And after the publication of a short course “The History of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks” by I.V. Stalin, sociology was abolished by administrative order, the strictest ban was imposed on the concrete study of the processes and phenomena of social life. sociology was declared a bourgeois pseudoscience, not only incompatible with Marexism, but also hostile to it. Basic and applied research was discontinued. The very word “sociology” turned out to be outside the law and was withdrawn from scientific use, social professionals went into oblivion.
The principles, theory and methods of cognition and development of social reality turned out to be incompatible with personal dictatorship, voluntarism and subjectivism in the management of society and social processes. Social mythology was raised to the level of science, and real science was declared pseudoscience.
The thaw of the sixties was reflected in sociology: a revival of sociological research began, they received citizenship rights, but sociology as a science did not. Sociology was absorbed by philosophy, specific social studies, as sociology incompatible with the specifics of philosophical epistemology, were taken out of the bounds of social knowledge. In an effort to retain the right to conduct specific research, sociologists were forced to focus on the positive aspects of the country's social development and ignore the negative facts. This explains the fact that the works of many scientists of that period until the last years of “stagnation” were one-sided. Not only were not accepted, but also condemned the alarming signals of the socialist on the problems of the destruction of nature, the growing alienation of labor, the alienation of power from the people, the growth of the national. trends, etc.
Such scientific concepts as ecology, alienation, social dynamics, the sociology of labor, the sociology of politics, the sociology of the family, the sociology of religion, the social norm, etc. were banned. Their use for a scientist could have resulted in enrolling him among the followers and propagandists of revolutionary bourgeois sociology.
Since sociological research had the right to life, by the mid-60s the first major sociological works on social engineering and concrete social analysis began to appear S. G. Strumilina, A. G. Zdravomyslov, V.A. Yadov and others. The first sociological institutions were created - the department of sociological research at the Institute of Philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the laboratory of social research at Leningrad University. In 1962, the Soviet Social Association was founded. In 1969, the Institute of Concrete Social Research was established (since 1972 - the Institute of Sociological Research, and since 1978 - the Institute of Sociology) of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Since 1974, the journal "Sots issl" began to be published. But the development of sociology was constantly hampered during the period of "stagnation". And after the publication of Lectures on Sociology by Y. Levada, the Institute of Sociological Research was declared to be the planting of bourgeois theoretical concepts, it was decided to create a Center for Public Opinion Polls on its basis. Once again, the concept of "sociology" was banned and replaced by the concept of applied sociology. Theoretical sociology was completely denied.
The ban on the development of theoretical sociology came in 1988. The seventy-year period of struggle for sociology as an independent science of society ended. (Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU of June 7, 1988, increasing the role of Marxist-Leninist sociology in solving the key and social problems of Soviet society) Today, in the West in the United States, sociology is given great attention. Only in the USA there are 90,000 scientists in the field of sociology, 250 faculties graduate people with a sociological education.
In ours in 1989 there was the first release of a hundred people. Now about 20,000 people are professionally involved in this specialty, but do not have a basic education, so the demand for specialists is very high.
Object and subject of sociological science.
The object of sociological knowledge is society, but it is not enough to define only the object of science. So, for example, society is the object of almost all humanistic sciences, therefore, the rationale for the scientific status of sociology, like any other science, lies in the difference between the object and subject of knowledge.
The object of cognition is everything that the researcher's activity is aimed at, which opposes him as an objective reality. Any phenomenon, process or relationship of objective reality can be the object of study of various sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, etc.). When it comes to the subject of study of a particular science, then this or that part of objective reality (city, family, etc.) is not taken as a whole, but only that side of it, which is determined by the specifics of this science. All other parties are considered as secondary.
The phenomenon of unemployment
economists
psychologists
sociologists
Each science is different from another subject. Thus, physics, chemistry, economics, sociology and other sciences as a whole study nature and society, which is characterized by an endless variety of phenomena and processes. But each of them studies:
1. Your own special side or environment of objective reality
2. Specific laws and patterns of this reality only for a given science
3. Special forms of manifestation and mechanisms of action of these laws and regularities
The subject of any science is not just some phenomenon or process of the objective world, but the result of theoretical abstraction, which makes it possible to identify those patterns of functioning of the object under study that are specific to a given science and no more.
Sociology quite late spun off from philosophy in France, political economy in Germany, social psychology in the USA precisely for the reason that the object and subject of sociological knowledge were identified. Until now, this serious methodological flaw is still inherent in many sociologists of the most diverse schools and trends.
So what is the subject of sociology? According to Comte, sociology is the only science that studies both the mind and the human mind, this is done under the influence of social life.
Saint-Simon Subject sociology - social obligations, groups, social. institutions, social phenomena and processes, as well as the interaction between them and their relationship, functioning and development.
The specificity of sociology as a science is that it studies every manifestation of human activity in a social context, i.e. in interconnection with society as a whole, in the interaction of various parties, levels of this social system.
Sorokin P. - “Sociology studies the phenomena of people's interaction with each other. on the one hand, and the phenomena arising from this process of interaction, on the other.
Adds: “... interhuman interactions”, i.e. gives boundaries.
Society is a social organism, consisting of a complex, interconnected, integral and contradictory complex of social communities, institutions, collectives, groups. Each of the components of this complex is a relatively independent subject of social life and is in interaction with other elements regarding its reproduction, implementation and development as a whole.
Society is not the sum of individuals, but an ensemble of human relations.
For example: At present, people are the same as a year, two or three years ago, but the state of the state has changed. Why? Relationships have changed. Thus: Sociology studies the phenomena of the interaction of people with each other, on the one hand, and the phenomena arising from this process of interaction, on the other.
If society is presented in the form of a cube and conditionally designate the spheres of people's life, then it will turn out:
The subject of sociology is the social side of society.
So, we have received that sociology studies the totality of connections and relations that are called social.
Social relations are relations between groups of people occupying different positions in society, taking an inadequate part in its economic, political and spiritual life, differing in lifestyle, level and source of income, and the structure of personal consumption.
Social relations are an expression of the mutual dependence of subjects on - about their life, lifestyle, attitude to society, internal self-organization, self-regulation, relationship with other subjects.
Since the connections and relations in each specific social object (society) are always organized in a special way, the object of sociological knowledge acts as a social system.
The task of sociological science is the typologization of social systems, the study of the connections and relationships of each typologized object at the level of regularities, obtaining specific scientific knowledge about the mechanisms of their action and forms of manifestation in various social systems for their purposeful management.
So: The object of sociological knowledge, its features are associated with the concept of social, social ties and relationships and the way they are organized.
The subject of sociological science is social regularities.
Sociology is the science of the laws of the formation, functioning, development of society as a whole, social relations and social communities, the mechanisms of interconnection and interaction between these communities, as well as between communities and the individual (Yadov).
Sociology in the system of social and human sciences.
Let us ask ourselves the question: Are there sufficient grounds for the creation of a special science - sociology, which sets as its task the study of the phenomena of interaction between people?
The answer to this question depends on the solution of three preliminary questions:
Is the class of phenomena that sociology studies important enough?
whether it represents a sui generis phenomenon whose properties are not found in other classes of phenomena
Is it studied by other sciences that appeared before sociology, and therefore make the latter as an independent science redundant
Let's try to answer these questions.
Practical and theoretical importance of sociology.
The practical importance of studying the phenomenon of human interaction is undeniable, if only because we are vitally and egoistically interested in studying them.
The theoretical importance of sociology becomes apparent if we prove that the properties of the phenomena it studies are not available in other classes of sciences and are not studied by other sciences, i.e. the last two questions need to be answered.
Consider them as follows
a) Sociology and physical and chemical sciences
The class of phenomena of interaction between people cannot be reduced to simple physicochemical and biological processes. M. b. in the distant future, science will reduce them to the latter and explain the whole complex world of interhuman phenomena by the laws of physics and chemistry. In any case, such attempts have been and continue to take place. But for now, alas! What came of it? We have a number of formulas like: “consciousness is the course of a neuro-energetic process”, “war, crime and punishment” are the essence of the phenomenon “energy leakage”, “sale-purchase is an exchange reaction”, “cooperation is the addition of forces” , “social struggle - subtraction of forces” , “degeneration - disintegration of forces”
Even if this is true, what do we gain from such analogies? Just an inaccurate comparison.
The same conclusion can be drawn about the creation of social mechanics, in which the concepts of mechanics are transported to the area of human relationships.
Here the individual turns into a “material point”, the environment around him - socio-humans - into a “field of forces”, etc.
From here come theorems like the following: “an increase in the kinetic energy of an individual is equal to a decrease in the potential energy”, “the total energy of a social group in relation to its work at a certain moment T is equal to the total energy that it had at the initial moment T0, increased by the total amount of work that at this the time interval (T1-T0) was produced by all forces outside the group that acted on individuals or elements of this group, etc.
Although this is true from the point of view of mechanics, it does not give us anything to reveal interpersonal interactions, because in this case, people cease to exist as people, in contrast to inanimate objects, and become only a material mass.
If crime is a drain of energy, does that mean that any dissipation of energy is at the same time a crime?
That is, in this case, there is not a study of social communication of people, but a study of people as ordinary physical bodies.
All the more reason for the existence of a special science that studies people and their interactions as human, with all the peculiar richness of its content.
b) Sociology and biology, in particular, ecology.
The world of human interactions is not studied by such biological disciplines as morphology, anatomy and physiology. dealing not with interhuman processes, but with phenomena given within or within the human organism.
It is otherwise with ecology as part of biology. Ecology is a science that studies the relationship of an organism to its external environment, in the sense of the totality of the conditions of existence (organic and inorganic). Ecology. studying the relationship of organisms to each other diverges into two branches: sociology, which has as its subject the relationship of animals to each other (animal communities).
and phyto-sociology, sociology that studies the relationship of plants to each other (plant community)
As we can see, ecology has as an object of study a class of phenomena similar to that. what is the subject of sociology. And here and there the facts of interaction are studied. Here and there, the processes of interaction between organisms are being studied (for homo sapiens is also an organism)
Isn't sociology being absorbed by ecology in this way? The answer is this: if people are in no way different from amoebas and other organisms, if they do not have specific properties. They can be equated between a person and an amoeba or another organism, between a person and a plant - then Yes, then no special homo-sociologists are needed. However, on the contrary, 300 - and phyto - sociology not only do not make homo-sociology superfluous, but even require its existence.
c) Sociology and psychology
1. If we talk about individual psychology, then its object and the object of sociology are different. Individual psychology studies the composition, structure and processes of the individual psyche and consciousness.
It cannot unravel the tangle of social factors, and therefore cannot be identified with sociology.
Collective or, as it is otherwise called, social psychology has an object of study that partially coincides with the object of sociology: these are phenomena of human interaction, the units of which are individuals “heterogeneous” and “having a weakly organized connection” (crowd, theater audience, etc.) In such groups, the interaction takes on other forms than in the aggregate “homogeneous” and “organically connected” groups studied by sociology.
It is clear that they (co and social psychology) do not replace each other, and moreover, social psychology could become the main co, one of its sections, as a science that studies all the main forms of interaction between people.
Psychology is focused on the inner world of a person, his perception, and co-studies a person through the prism of his social connections and relationships.
d) Sociology and special disciplines that study the relationship of people.
All social sciences: political science, law, the science of religion, morality, morality, art, etc., also study the phenomena of human relationships, but each from its own special point of view.
Thus, the science of law studies a special kind of phenomena of human relationships: the principal and the debtor, spouse and spouse.
The object of political economy is the joint economic activity of people in the sphere of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods.
The science of morals studies the collective ways of thinking and acting of people.
Morality is a certain type of human behavior and provides a recipe for proper interaction
Aesthetics - studies the phenomena of interaction that develop on the basis of the exchange of aesthetic reactions (between the actor and the audience, between the artist and the crowd, etc.)
In short, the social sciences study this or that kind of human interaction. And so occupies a special place in the system of social and human sciences.
This is explained as follows.
Co is the science of society, its phenomena and processes
It includes a general sociological theory, or the theory of society, which acts as the theory and methodology of all other social and human sciences
All social and human sciences ... studying various aspects of the life of society and man, always include a social aspect, i.e. laws and patterns that are studied in a particular area of public life, are realized through the life of people
· Technique and methodology for studying a person and his activities, methods of social measurement, etc. developed by sociology are necessary and used by all other social and human sciences. A whole system of research conducted at the intersection of social sciences and other sciences (socio-economic, socio-political, etc.)
The position of sociology among other social and human sciences can be illustrated by the following formula
If there are n different objects to study, then there will be n + 1 sciences studying them, i.e. n sciences studying objects, and n + 1st - a theory studying the common thing that is inherent in all these objects.
So occupies a general, not a private place among the social sciences and the humanities, it provides scientifically based information about society and its structures, provides an understanding of the laws and patterns of interaction of its various structures. The position of co in relation to the special social disciplines is the same as the position of general biology in relation to anatomy, physiology, morphology, taxonomy, and other special biological branches of knowledge. The position of the general part of physics - to acoustics, slectronics, the doctrine of light, etc.
e) Sociology and history
There is a discipline in the system of social sciences with which the connection of sociology is most intimate and mutually necessary. This is history
Both history and co have society and its laws in their concrete manifestations as the object and subject of their research. Both sciences reproduce social reality.
Faculty of Sociology
Lecture #2
Function, structure and method of sociology
I. Functions of sociology
II. Structure of sociology
III. Method of sociological science
I. Functions of sociology.
The functions of each science express the diversity of its interactions and connections with the daily practice of society. In functions lies the need of society for a specific cognitive or transformative action of a given science.
The purpose of sociology is determined by the needs of the functioning and development of the social sphere of the life of society and man.
So sociology, studying social life
firstly: solves scientific problems related to the formation of knowledge about social reality, description, explanation and understanding of the processes of social development, development of the conceptual apparatus of sociology, methodology and methods of sociological research. Theories and concepts being developed in this area answer two questions:
1) “what is known?” - an object;
2) “how is it known?” - method;
those. associated with the solution of epistemological (cognitive) problems and form a theoretical, fundamental sociology.
secondly, it studies the problems associated with the transformation of social reality, the analysis of ways and means of systematic, purposeful influence on social processes. This is the field of applied sociology.
Theoretical and applied sociology differ in the goal they set for themselves, and not in the object and method of research.
Applied sociology sets itself the task, using the laws and regularities in the development of society learned by fundamental sociology, to find ways, means of transforming this society in a positive direction. Therefore, it studies the practical branches of human activity, for example, the sociology of politics, the sociology of law, labor, culture, etc. and answer the question
"for what?":
(for social development, for the formation of a legal society, for social management, etc.)
The division of sociological knowledge in terms of orientation into fundamental and applied is rather conditional, because both make a certain contribution to the solution of both scientific and practical problems.
The same applies to empirical sociological research: they can also be oriented toward solving practical problems.
With these two aspects in mind, the functions of sociology can be represented and grouped as follows:
cognitive function
Sociology studies the social.
Let's expand this concept, because it is key to sociology.
The social is a combination of certain properties and features of social relations, integrated by individuals or communities in the process of joint activity (interaction) in specific conditions and manifested in their relationship to each other, to their position in society, to the phenomena and processes of social life. Any system of social relations (economic, political, cultural and spiritual) concerns the relationship of people to each other and to society, and therefore has its own social aspect.
The social arises as a result of the fact that people occupy different places and roles in specific social structures, and this is manifested in their different attitudes to the phenomena and processes of social life. That's what social is.
Sociology is designed to study just that.
On the one hand, the social is a direct expression of social practice, on the other hand, it is subject to constant change due to the impact of this very social practice on it.
Sociology is faced with the task of cognition in the socially stable, essential and at the same time constantly changing, analysis of the relationship between constant and variable in a particular state of a social object.
In reality, a specific situation acts as an unknown social fact that must be recognized in the interests of practice.
A social fact is a single socially significant event typical of a given sphere of social life.
The theoretical and empirical analysis of this social fact is the expression of the cognitive function of sociology.
one). At the same time, relying on fundamental knowledge about the social process, the subject, knowledge is accumulated about the nature of a particular state of a social phenomenon, its transformation and the real result of the development of this phenomenon.
That is, the cognitive function acts as a descriptive (descriptive) and diagnostic function at the same time in this case.
2). But the cognitive function must cover not only the object being studied, but also the process that is required for its transformation, i.e., try to predict, anticipate this process.
For example, to know, say, not only how close people are in a given group, collective, united among themselves, but also what needs to be done to make them even more united, that is, to see these ways.
To solve this problem, sociology, as a rule, relies on related sciences - economic, demographic, psychological.
3). Another direction of the cognitive function is the development of the theory and methods of sociological research, methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing sociological information.
predictive function.
Science generally has a predictive function.
Science is able to build a short-term or long-term forecast based on:
Knowledge of the quality and essence of reality;
Knowledge of the laws of functioning of this reality;
Knowledge of the laws of development of reality
When it comes to social phenomena, then forecasting is especially important here, because. it shows:
The need for certain changes;
The ability to implement these changes.
Sociology in this case relies on the one hand:
- on knowledge of the general foundations of the development of the studied society, its general prospects;
with another:
- on the knowledge of the specific capabilities of an individual social subject.
For example: predicting the development prospects today of one or another state. enterprise, we rely on the general trend of today's transformations of the public sector (privatization, the creation of joint-stock companies, the termination of subsidies to unprofitable enterprises, etc.) and on the study of the potential of this particular enterprise, taking into account all its features (who manages, what is the contingent of employees, what is the raw material base, scientific, material and technical, social, etc.), i.e. all the positive and negative factors of this subject. And on this basis, the estimated characteristics of the possible future state of the subject in the forecast period are built. (how the social structure of the team will change, job satisfaction, what level of development will be achieved, etc.) and effective recommendations are made.
The prognostic function of sociology is a reflection of society's need to create conditions for the conscious development and implementation of a scientifically based development perspective for each social division of society.
Social forecasting must take into account the reverse impact of the forecast on the minds of people and their activities, which can lead to its “self-realization” (or “self-destruction”). This feature of forecasting requires the development of a scientific forecast in the form of options, development alternatives that describe possible forms and manifestations, the pace of deployment of processes, taking into account control actions, as well as their qualitative changes.
There are 2 types of social forecasts, in which extrapolation (prediction) and goal setting are combined in different ways:
- search (designed to describe a possible state based on current trends, taking into account control actions)
- normative (associated with setting goals, describes the desired state, ways and means to achieve it).
Classification of forecasts by terms of forecasts:
– short-term
– medium-term
– long-term
There is a classification by role: For example: Forecasts-warnings, etc.
Means and methods used for forecasting:
- statistical analysis;
– construction of time series with subsequent extrapolation;
– method of expert assessments of the main trends;
- mathematical modeling.
The best effect is a combination of different methods
Sociologists conduct predictive developments in various areas. For example:
– development of the social structure of society;
– social problems of labor;
- social problems of the family;
– social problems of education;
– social consequences of the decisions made (the most relevant ones).
Forecasting must be distinguished from utopias and futurological concepts (lat. futurum future + ... logic), which perform the corresponding ideological functions.
Functions of social design and construction
Social design (from lat. projectus - protruding forward) is a scientifically based design of a system of parameters for a future object or a qualitatively new state of an existing object. This is one of the forms of social control.
In social design, it is precisely social tasks that are solved, regardless of what the object is: actually social (hospital, school), production (factory, factory), architectural (neighborhood), etc., i.e., social parameters are laid down in the project, requiring comprehensive provision of conditions for the implementation of all interrelated sub-goals of social design, namely:
– social and economic efficiency;
– ecological optimality;
– social integration;
– social and organizational manageability;
- social activity.
This is stage I.
Then stage II: a range of urgent social problems is identified, the solution of which is necessary to achieve each subgoal.
Stage III: Specific tasks for the development of a social project are determined.
one). as a system of social parameters of the designed object and their quantitative indicators;
2). as a set of specific measures that ensure the implementation of the projected indicators and qualitative characteristics of the future facility.
When determining the degree of feasibility of social projects, the business game method is effective. This method has proven itself and is used in practice.
Organizational and technological function
The organizational and technological function is a system of means that determine the order and clear rules of practical actions to achieve a specific result in improving the social organization, social process or social relations, solving various social problems. Increasing labor productivity, improving the organization of management, purposefully influencing public opinion through the media, etc. In other words, this is the creation of social technologies.
The organizational and technological function is, as it were, a continuation of the function of social design, since without a project, an expected social result, it is impossible to create a social technology, to develop measures for its implementation.
With the creation of a network of social services in the national economy, this function is becoming more and more common.
Social technologies are based on empirical experience and theoretical patterns.
managerial function
Offers;
Methods;
Evaluation of various characteristics of the subject, his practice;
All this is the source material for the development and adoption of managerial decisions.
Consequently, in order to make a competent decision on one or another social problem, so that it has a scientific basis, sociological activity is necessary.
For example: A managerial decision related to a change in the mode of work in a work team requires a sociological analysis of direct and indirect factors that arise:
In the field of labor activity;
In the sphere of everyday life, leisure, etc.
The managerial function of sociology is manifested:
In social planning;
When developing social indicators and standards;
Etc.
instrumental function
Along with general methods of social cognition, sociology develops its own approaches and techniques for analyzing social reality.
With the help of some methods, a social phenomenon is known and reflected in its concrete state;
with the help of others, ways of its transformation are being developed.
Those. it is a separate and independent function of sociology aimed at developing methods and tools for
Registrations
Processing
Analysis
generalization
primary sociological information.
Sociological research itself is the most general tool in sociology, and it includes a whole series of methods, the development of which continues to be improved. And this activity of developing research tools for social cognition occupies a significant place in sociology.
II. Structure of sociology.
Sociology is a fairly differentiated system of knowledge.
Each of its structural parts is conditioned by the needs of cognitive and productive activity and, in turn, characterizes the multifaceted and multipurpose purpose of sociology as a science.
The structure of sociology can be represented as consisting of 4 main blocks:
I. Theoretical and methodological foundations of sociology.
II. A huge number of social theories (including the sociology of journalism), i.e. the whole issue.
III. Methods of sociological research, methods of processing, analysis and generalization of sociological information, i.e. empirical and methodological arsenal of science.
IV. Social engineering activities, social technologies, i.e. knowledge on the organization and activities of social development services, on the role of sociology in the national economy and management.
For Part I:
The study of a social phenomenon involves identifying the essence and nature of a social phenomenon, its historical specifics, and its relationship with the economic and political aspects of life. This stage of cognition is the fundamental theoretical basis for the study of any social phenomenon. Without this fundamental theoretical knowledge, it is impossible to study a social phenomenon.
For part II:
Sociology deals with individual social phenomena (single or mass, reduced to an average statistical fact). Two points stand out in their study:
1) knowledge of the nature of a particular social phenomenon (personality, labor collective, self-expression of the subject through any activity, manifestation of the subject's social position in relation to something or opinion). It is systematized in special sociological theories, reveals the essence of a particular phenomenon, the specifics of the expression of the social in it.
2) knowledge of the nature of the very state of a social phenomenon as a moment and limit in its development.
For part III:
The specificity of cognitive activity - the theory and methods of sociological research, methods of collecting, processing, analyzing primary information about the state of a social phenomenon - is an important independent part of sociology.
For part IV:
The theory of organization and activities of social development services, which reveals the functions and role of a sociologist, is an independent specific part of sociology. This is a tool for transforming practice, which the head of any enterprise, employees of sociological services, and power structures should own.
III. Method of sociological science.
Hegel said: "All philosophy is summed up in the method."
So it is in sociology - the specificity of the object and subject of science determined the specificity of its method.
Since for the knowledge of the social process, phenomena, etc. it is necessary to obtain primary detailed information about it, its strict selection, analysis, it is obvious that the tool in the process of such knowledge is sociological research.
Sociological research is one of the main methods in sociology. It includes:
1) Theoretical part
(- development of a research program,
Justification of the goal and objectives,
Definition of hypotheses and research stages).
2) Instrumental part (procedural part)
(- a set of information gathering tools
Choosing a method for collecting information
Determination of the effective sample
Ability to process information
Obtaining characteristics of the state of the investigated reality).
Faculty of Sociology
Lecture No. 3 (+ see lecture on MG)
II. Social laws: essence, classification
Faculty of Sociology
Literature:
2) Social structures and relations.
A social phenomenon always has a certain social quality.
For example: “A group of students” is a social phenomenon.
Its qualities:
1) these are people who study;
2) have secondary or secondary specialized education;
3) certain age (up to 35 years);
4) a certain level of intelligence;
These qualities of a social phenomenon are infinitely diverse and are in constant motion.
Example: - “a group of full-time students”
Some quality characteristics;
- “a group of students of the evening department”;
- “a group of students of a technical university”;
- “a group of students of a humanitarian university;
Concrete states of a social phenomenon
Other quality characteristics.
All characteristics are mobile and appear in the most varied shades of the “whole”, i.e. the most social phenomenon in general.
This unity and diversity, the constancy and mobility of any social phenomenon in its specific state is reflected in the relevant categories, concepts and laws of sociology.
To describe the specific state of a particular social phenomenon, the whole system of knowledge is needed:
1) as to the social in general;
2) as well as in relation to the special area of a given social phenomenon up to its specific state;
From the above, we conclude:
In the cognition of any social phenomenon in sociology, two interrelated points (contradictions) must be taken into account.
1) Recognition of the individuality, specificity of the studied social phenomenon (in our example, a group of students).
2) Identification of the essential characteristics of a social phenomenon associated with the manifestation of statistical patterns of distribution of features common to a given class of social phenomena that manifest themselves under certain conditions and give reason to draw conclusions about the regular nature of the development, functioning and structure of both this social phenomenon and everything class of related phenomena.
Probability theory and the law of large numbers apply here:
The higher the probability of the manifestation of some feature, the more reliable and justified our judgment about a particular social phenomenon and its qualitative and quantitative characteristics.
The specificity of the object and subject of science determines the specificity of the categories (concepts) of this science.
The extent to which the categorical apparatus is developed characterizes the level of knowledge in a particular science. And vice versa - the deepening of knowledge in science enriches categories and concepts.
For sociology, one of the main and extremely broad categories is the category of “social”.
Social in its content is a reflection of the organization and life of society as a subject of the historical process. It accumulates experience, traditions, knowledge, abilities, etc.
Therefore, knowledge of the social manifests itself in the following functions:
Promotes understanding to what extent a social phenomenon, process, community contributes to the harmonious development of society and the individual in their integral unity;
Determines the content of interests, needs, motives, attitudes in the activities of social communities and individuals;
Speaking of “social”, I want to remind you that at the 1st lecture we said that this concept is key for sociology and wrote down its definition:
The social is a combination of certain properties and features of social relations, integrated by individuals or communities in the process of joint activity (interaction) in specific conditions and manifested in their relationship to each other, to their position in society, to the phenomena and processes of social life.
But I would like you to have a clearer idea of \u200b\u200bthis area of human relations and therefore I want to draw your attention to the following:
History reference:
K. Marx and F. Engels used two terms in their writings:
Public
Social
The concept of “public”, “public relations”, etc. were used when it was about society as a whole (economic, political, spiritual, etc. spheres).
It was often identified with the concept of "civilian".
The concept of "social" was used in the study of the nature of people's relations to each other, to the factors and conditions of life, the position and role of a person in society, etc.
Developing the theory of historical materialism, K. Marx and F. Engels paid the main attention to the interaction of all aspects of the life of society and therefore used the term “social relations”.
Subsequently, Marxist scholars lost sight of this circumstance and began to equate the concepts of “public” and “social”.
And when sociology was replaced by historical materialism, the specific object of sociological knowledge, social connections and relations, was lost.
However, in the countries of Western Europe and the United States, the concept of “social” has traditionally been used in a narrow sense.
And in order to designate phenomena and processes related to society as a whole, the concept of “societal” was introduced, which is used to characterize society as a whole, the entire system of social relations (economic, political, social, spiritual).
In our country, the concepts of “public” and “civil” were used. The first - as a synonym for "social", the second - as a term of legal science, that is, the true semantic meaning of the social was lost along with the science of sociology itself.
(End of historical note).
The social sphere is the sphere of reproduction of the subject, i.e. the reproduction of the subject for the future and maintaining its existence in the present, in order to be able to function fruitfully in the spheres of production, political, cultural and spiritual.
The world is systematized: holistic.
Every whole is a set of some elements and they make up a system, which means they have a connection structure.
Similarly:
Society is a whole, and society is a set, but not just people, but their connections, which forms a set and a whole.
"Whole"
"A bunch of"
"Structure"
"Function"
“Social Role”
"Position"
Thus, we have received the social structure of society.
To study a society, one must know its structure, and hence the relationships and their connections.
As Mayakovsky said: “If the stars are lit, then someone needs it.”
Similarly, if there are social relations, then this is necessary.
Social relationships are functional.
Those. each member of society has its own functions (a journalist, doctor, teacher, metallurgist, pensioner, husband, wife, etc.).
This defines a “social role” – it is a normatively approved way of behaving.
"Position" - the place that an individual occupies, that is, how he relates to his role, functions.
We have considered the concept of "social".
The next, no less important category in sociology, with which all other groups and series of categories and concepts are consistent, is the category of "social in its specific state." Whether it concerns any social subject (social community, family, labor collective, personality, etc.) or some social process (way of life, communication, struggle for the implementation of social interests, etc.), it is associated with revealing the social in its concrete implementation.
Here, knowledge about each of the subject areas plays an exceptional role.
This knowledge, as well as the corresponding concepts, the categorical apparatus, is accumulated and systematized in special sociological theories.
An independent and significant place in the system of categories and concepts of sociology is occupied by categories (concepts) that reflect the specifics of the collection and processing of social information, the organization and conduct of sociological research.
Here the categories are: “sociological research”, “programming and organization of social. research”, “technique and methodology of social. research”, “methods of collecting primary information”, “tools of social. research”, etc.
The fourth section of sociology has its own conceptual apparatus: “social engineering”, “social design”, “social technologies”, etc.
II. Sociological laws: essence, classification
The core of any science is its laws.
A law is an essential connection or an essential relationship that is universal, necessary and repeatable under given conditions. Social law is an expression of the essential, necessary connection of social phenomena and processes, primarily the connections of people's social activities or their actions. Social the laws express the stable interaction of forces and their uniform, which reveals the essence of phenomena and processes.
To study social laws and regularities means to establish essential and necessary connections between various elements of the social sphere.
Classification of laws.
Laws vary in duration
Laws vary in degree of generality.
Laws differ in the way they are manifested:
Statistical (stochastic) - reflect trends while maintaining the stability of a given social whole, determine the connection of phenomena and processes not rigidly, but with a certain degree of probability. It fixes only individual deviations from the line of motion given by the dynamic law. They do not characterize the behavior of each object in the class of phenomena under study, but some property or feature inherent in the class of objects as a whole. Establish a trend in the behavior of a given class of objects in accordance with their general properties and characteristics.
Typology of social laws according to the forms of connections (5 categories)
(Example: Under totalitarian rule, there is always a latent opposition).
II category. Laws reflecting development trends. They determine the dynamics of the structure of a social object, the transition from one order of relationships to another. This determining influence of the previous state of the structure on the next has the character of a law of development.
III category. Laws establishing a functional relationship between social phenomena. The social system is preserved, but its elements are mobile. These laws characterize the variability of the system, the ability to take on different states.
If the laws of development determine the transition from one quality of a social object to another, then the laws of functioning create the prerequisites for this transition.
(Example: The more actively students work in the classroom, the better they master the educational material).
(Example: A necessary condition for increasing the birth rate in the country is the improvement of social and living conditions for women).
(Example: Increasing women's economic independence increases the likelihood of divorce.
The growth of alcoholism in the country increases the likelihood of childhood pathology).
Social actions are characterized by a random variable. These random variables together form a certain average resultant value, which acts as a form of manifestation of the social law.
Social regularity cannot manifest itself otherwise than in the average, social, mass regularity in the interaction of individual deviations in one direction or another.
To determine the average resultant, it is necessary:
one). Establish the direction of actions of similar groups of people in the same conditions;
2). Establish a system of social ties, the framework of which this activity is determined by;
3). To establish the degree of repetition and stability of social actions and interactions of groups of individuals in the conditions of a given social system of functioning.
If we observe one person, we will not see the law. If we observe a set, then, taking into account the deviations of each individual in one direction or another, we obtain the resulting ones, i.e. regularity.
Therefore, a sample population is taken from the General population and a prediction is made on it for the entire population.
If the sample is made accurately, then the pattern is derived extremely accurately.
Thus, sociology as a science is based on a complex hierarchical system of laws that characterize the peculiarity of being in its various manifestations.
Faculty of Sociology
Lecture #4
Literature:
I. M-l sociology. Ed. N.N. Dryakhlov. M. Publishing House of Moscow Faculty, 1989. pp. 55-83, 186-194, 249-256
II. Sociology G. V. Osipov M. Thought, 1990 pp. 50-79, 119-185.
III. The social structure of Soviet society: history and modernity - M. Politizdat 1987
IV. A Concise Dictionary of Sociology - M. Politizdat 1988
1) The social as an objective essence of sociological science.
2) Social structures and relations.
The social as the subject matter of sociological analysis. Social structures and relations.
I. Social as an objective community of social. Sciences.
1. When it comes to production processes, the interactions of people and various social groups and communities regarding the production and exchange of consumer goods are considered ® mutual dependence is formed between people in society regarding their participation in social labor, distribution and consumption of its results ® develops and the system of economic relations of the society functions.
2. People, due to the need for a certain organization of the life of society, enter into interaction and interdependence with each other regarding the organization and exercise of political power ® the political sphere of society is formed and operates (political relations are formed).
3. People interact regarding the production and distribution of spiritual values in society - knowledge, orientations, norms, principles, etc. ® the cultural and spiritual sphere of society's life is formed (cultural and spiritual relations are formed).
4. What is the social side or sphere of society?
The need for the social as a special phenomenon in the life of society lies in the complexity of organizing society itself as an integral subject of the historical process. This complexity is expressed in the fact that society is built, forms its own systems and organs: 1). According to functions (industrial, political, demographic, etc.; 2) According to the levels of connection of people in various social formations (family, work collective, settlement, ethnic community, etc.).
Society (see the definition in lecture No. 1, p. 10 or abbreviated here) is an organism that is a system of relatively independent elements, each of which implements a holistic life process and is in constant interaction with all other subjects of the social process regarding its implementation .
As a subject of life, any individual, any social organization or community occupies a specific position in the organization of society, in its structure and structure. He (the subject) needs historically determined conditions for his existence and reproduction, which would be adequate to his vital needs. This is the main social interest of this subject, which characterizes his social position.
The essence of the social as a phenomenon of being lies precisely in the fact that people, their diverse social groups and communities are in constant interaction regarding both the preservation of their social position in society and the improvement of their life process.
Thus, society has a complex functional and structural organization, in which all subjects interact with each other regarding the integrity and qualitative certainty of their lifestyle and social position in society. ® This expresses the necessity, specificity, certainty of the social, its essence and significance in sociology.
The social is a combination of certain properties and features of social relations, integrated by individuals or communities in the process of joint activity (interaction) in specific conditions and manifested in their relationship to each other, to their position in society, to the phenomena and processes of social life. Any system of social relations (economy, political democrats) concerns the relationship of people to each other and to society: it has its own social aspect.
A social phenomenon or process occurs when the behavior of even one individual is influenced by another or a group (community), regardless of their physical presence.
The social arises as a result of the fact that people occupy different places and roles in specific social structures, and this is manifested in their different attitudes to the phenomena and processes of social life.
On the one hand, the social is a direct expression of social practice, on the other hand, it is subject to constant change due to the impact of this very social practice on it.
Social in its content is a reflection of the organization and life of society as a subject of the historical process. It accumulates experience, traditions, knowledge, abilities, etc.
Therefore, knowledge of the social manifests itself in the following functions:
As a criterion for assessing the compliance of the state of society and its elements with the achieved level of social progress;
Promotes understanding to what extent any social phenomenon, process, community contribute to the harmonious development of society and the individual in a holistic unity;
Acts as the basis for the development of social norms, standards, goals and forecasts of social development;
- determines the content of interests, needs, motives, attitudes in the activities of social communities and individuals;
It has a direct impact on the formation of social values and life positions of people, their way of life;
It acts as a measure of evaluation of each type of social relations, their compliance with real practice and the interests of society and the individual.
Because economic, political and other social relations represent the mutual dependence of individuals on their implementation of a specific type of activity necessary for society, and, accordingly, taking a place in the organization of society, and, accordingly, taking a place in the organization of society for the implementation of this activity (production organizations, political organizations, etc.). .p.), then social relations are the mutual dependence of individuals, large and small groups regarding their life activity, lifestyle in general and place in the organization of society, i.e. about the integrity of the existence of society and man as subjects of life.
Social relations between groups of people occupying different positions in society, taking an unequal part in its economic, political and spiritual life, differing in their way of life, level and sources of income, and the structure of personal consumption.
Society is formed on the basis of property, accumulated labor in the form of material wealth and culture.
Labor as an expedient human activity, as a manifestation of its generic essence, is a fundamental factor in the formation of the social.
The quality of a social phenomenon, subject or process has not only a general historical nature, but also a concrete historical essence:
the peculiarity of the inclusion and participation of people in social production, in the production of all social life, determines the specifics of the social in various historical periods and phases of the development of society.
An important expression of the social is public opinion. In it and through it, the social position of the subject and his attitude both to the conditions of life in general and to individual events and facts are revealed.
Public opinion is the most mobile expression of the subject's social position.
Public opinion is a state of mass consciousness, which contains the hidden or explicit attitude of various social communities to problems, events and facts of reality.
It is indeed an important expression of the social.
We said that public opinion is sensitive to the subject's social position.
Let's remember what a position is:
Society is a “Whole” consisting of a “set” of individuals, their relations are a system or “structure” of connections, each in this social structure has its own “functions”, and therefore fulfills its “social role” (normatively approved behavior ) and have your own “position” (the place that an individual occupies, that is, how he relates to his role, functions).
But besides this, there is another important concept that sociology studies, these are meanings.
Society is multidimensional. It is measured and changed in four dimensions (cube: height, depth and width) plus time (social time). But there is still a fifth dimension - quasi (supposedly a dimension).
Let's conditionally depict it as a cylinder inscribed in a cube. This cylinder is meanings.
This cylinder also has a time dimension.
Parable: Three Homo sapiens were walking, they saw a stone. One thought: it would be nice to make a weapon out of it for hunting a mammoth”; the other - "it would be good to use it for the hearth"; the third - “it would be nice to make it out of it, carve a head” (head).
That is, the object is in space, outside of us, and its essence lives in our minds, depends on our needs. Everyone has their own needs and their own vision.
Similarly, journalists invest their essence, that is, from the same subject, depending on their subjective perception of this objective subject, depending on their position, they extract their essence.
That is, each subject has his own idea of the same subject, of the same connections and relationships.
The task of sociology is to delve into these meanings, to cognize them in every social phenomenon, process, and relationship.
The social is diverse, because events, facts, situations are diverse, which are the expression of a specific state of a particular social phenomenon.
On the other hand, we are talking about the integrity, concreteness and certainty of the organization of society, that is, social phenomena.
Thus, it is necessary to take into account the unity and diversity of the social in its cognition.
So, we have established that the essence of the social lies in the interaction of people about both maintaining their social position and improving their life process.
In other words:
A social or social phenomenon is the reproduction of man as such, his preservation and his development.
The sphere of life of society is a special type of its life activity, the process of development of society in which one or another function of society is realized. (for example: in the productive sphere, the production function is realized, etc.).
The social sphere is the process of the functioning and development of society, in which its social function, social being itself, is realized, i.e. holistic reproduction and enrichment of society and man as subjects of the life process.
Everything that is directed by society to ensure the immediate life of people, their reproduction, and on this basis the reproduction of society as a whole, characterizes the social environment of the life of society and man.
Those. the social environment is everything that is directed by society to ensure the direct life of people, their reproduction and the development of their abilities and needs.
It can also be said that
The social sphere is a process of self-expression of society and a person as the creator of his own life.
Proceeding from the dialectic of the general, the particular and the individual, it should be emphasized that each subject (a person, a family, a labor collective, the population of a city, village, district, etc.) is included in the social sphere of society in its own way. For each of the subjects, this environment is the sphere of its valuable life existence and life reproduction, the sphere of self-realization and self-development.
The social sphere can be represented as a system of characteristics of the social sphere, highlighting the fundamental needs of people's lives and ways to satisfy them.
(For example: the need for housing and its real satisfaction).
The identification of the characteristics of the social sphere makes it possible to develop their indicators, which should take into account both the normative-calculated, cancer and the actually achieved opportunity to satisfy the need through the potential created in society and the method of such satisfaction.
(For example:
By 1986, the average real total living space per person in the country was 14.6 square meters. m, and the calculated rational norm assumed 20 square meters. m per person. The country needed to invest in housing construction "1,000 billion rubles.)
Quantitative characteristics of the social sphere represent a special aspect - social infrastructure.
Social infrastructure is the material and organizational components of the social sphere. This is a complex of institutions, structures, vehicles designed to serve the population, as well as a set of relevant sectors of the economy and social relations, taking into account the population, i.e. real needs.
According to the state of infrastructure, one can assess the level and quality of satisfaction of needs, their correlation with the level of developed countries and the requirements of the development of modern civilization.
The structure of occupations and activities of people characterizes the development of the social sphere and its infrastructure. Social policy is aimed at improving classes and their structure.
Social policy is the activity of the state to manage the development of the social sphere of society and is aimed at raising the labor and socio-political activity of the masses, meeting their needs, interests, improving well-being, culture, lifestyle and quality of life.
At the same time, the development and use of social technologies by special social services are of great importance.
Faculty of Sociology
Lecture #5
I. Methodology
Literature
Averyanov A. N. Systemic understanding of the world: methodological problems M. Politizdat, 1985
Methodological apparatus of sociological science.
I. Methodology.
Methodology is a system of principles of scientific research.
Example: "Social tensions increased in September."
How to arrive at such a theoretical conclusion?
Necessary:
To study the social structure of society;
Determine the indicators of the living standards of society and its social communities;
To study the dynamics of changes in these indicators for a certain period; (measure them);
To study the reaction of people, individual communities to a change in the standard of living, a change in indicators;
This is a methodology: a system of principles of scientific research, a set of research procedures, techniques and methods for collecting and processing data.
There are three levels of methodology:
I Level.
Philosophy as a methodology equips the researcher with knowledge of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and thinking, allows you to embrace the world in its entirety, determine the place of the problem under study among many others, its connection with them, etc.
Arguing about the methods of cognition, A. Einstein wrote: “To apply his method, the theoretician needs as a foundation some general assumptions, the so-called principles, on the basis of which he can derive consequences.”
Philosophy as a methodology, representing a system of the most general concepts, laws, principles of the movement of matter, directs human activity in a certain direction. In this case, either the entire arsenal of well-known philosophical generalizations can be used, or a group of some general ideas, or one of the principles that begins to act as the main, organizing, grouping around itself other ways of knowing.
The philosophical level or the level of general scientific methodology is the expression of a heuristic (i.e. search) function. And the main thing here is the dialectical approach to cognition.
Thus, dialectics asserts that the qualities or stable properties of an object (a social object in our case) are revealed as something preserved in the manifold relations of this object with others.
As methodological principles are all the main provisions arising from the laws and categories of philosophy:
Materialistic understanding of social reality;
dialectical development;
Unity and struggle of opposites;
dialectical negation;
Essence and phenomenon;
Relationship between quantitative and qualitative changes
They express a conscious philosophical position.
The methodological principle that follows from this:
It is necessary to provide for certain research procedures in order to “capture” precisely the stable properties of the object.
For example: “What is the structure of labor activity motives?”
Consider 3 types of specific situations:
1) School graduates are interviewed, deciding the question of choosing a profession. They evaluate the various advantages and disadvantages of the chosen specialty, value orientations, personally significant standards for assessing the content and conditions of work are identified. This is a projective (imaginary) situation.
2) Interview young workers who evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their real work. This is a real balanced situation.
3) Interviewed workers who change jobs, because. She doesn't like them for some reason. This is a stressful or even conflict situation.
Comparing the data of three situations, we find that some motives for labor activity are constantly present in all three cases:
The amount of earnings;
The possibility of promotion at work;
Profession prestige.
This is the motivational core, i.e. stable combinations that characterize the attitude to work in its various states and relationships.
The next assertion of dialectics is connected with the need to consider social processes in their development and change.
(In the example above, this means interviewing these workers after »15 years).
This example shows how the general methodological requirement is implemented in the rules of procedure:
consider phenomena and processes in the variety of their connections and dynamics, thus revealing their stable and changing properties.
In addition to the dialectical principle, one can also name the principle of systematic theoretical knowledge and practice.
Being a philosophical principle that concretizes the dialectical-materialist principle of universal connection, it acts as a general scientific one in relation to specific scientific areas, and a certain general scientific methodology is developed on its basis.
So, level II.
General scientific methodology makes it possible to possess certain laws and principles of research that are effective in various fields of knowledge.
For example, electromagnetic theory can be considered as a methodology for studying a wide range of electrodynamic phenomena.
For sociology, this is the general methodology of sociological research or sociological methodology. (from the Greek. metodos - the path of research or knowledge and the Greek. logos - a word, concept, doctrine) - the doctrine of the method of social cognition.
Social reality is specific, therefore, for its cognition there is its own methodology - sociological methodology. Since there are different worldview approaches in sociology, today only in the West, about 19 schools and areas of sociological methodology are subdivided according to the main currents of philosophical thought. The opposition between positivism and antipositivism remains the most irreconcilable. Until recently, the Marxist-Leninist methodology, which was based on the method of materialist dialectics, was officially in force in our country.
Acting as applied logic, general sociological theory helps to find the fundamental structure and main lines of relationships in the phenomenon under study in order to proceed to a purposeful empirical study of the object.
(For example: "The growth of social tension" - everything up to empirical measurements, everything is sociological methodology, i.e. the methodology of the general theory of sociology.)
Sociological positivism is the leading trend in sociology of the 19th century. (Saint-Simon, Comte, Mill, Spencer). The main aspiration of positivism is the rejection of speculative reasoning about society, the creation of a “positive” social theory, which was supposed to become as demonstrative and generally valid as natural scientific theories.
Positivism is the leading trend in sociology of the 19th century, the main methodological guidelines were formulated by Saint-Simon, the main concepts were developed in the works of Comte, Mill, Spencer.
Formed as opposed to theorizing.
The main aspirations of positivism are the departure from speculative reasoning about society, the creation of a social theory that is demonstrative, like natural science theories. (Method of observation, comparative, historical and mathematical methods).
Structuralism is a methodological trend that proceeds from ideas about the predominance, advantage of structural change in any phenomena of the surrounding world: from structural analysis as a method of understanding nature and society.
(Montesquieu 1689-1755; Saint-Simon 1760-1825, Comte 1798-1856, Spencer, Durigheim).
Functionalism is one of the main methodological approaches. The essence is in highlighting the elements of social interaction, determining their place and meaning (function) (Spencer, Durrheim, etc.)
Special methodology of sociological research or methodology of specific sociological research.
In science in general, concrete scientific methodology reflects the sum of laws, techniques, principles that are effective for the study of a particular area of reality.
The methodology of a specific sociological research is the doctrine of methods for collecting, processing and analyzing the utilization of primary sociological information.
Research activities are guided by the following provisions:
1) constant appeal to the object of study in order to concretize knowledge, achieve truth;
2) comparison with the results of previously obtained knowledge in science;
3) dividing all cognitive actions into simpler procedures in order to carry out their verification using proven methods
The concretization of these principles is in the nature of requirements for the conduct of sociological research.
Summarize. The concept of “methodology” is a collective term that has various aspects. General scientific methodology is a method of finding the most general approaches to the study of a subject. General sociological methodology provides guidance on the fundamental foundations for the development of particular sociological theories in relation to their factual basis. The latter, in turn, contain special methodological functions, acting as an applied logic for the study of a given subject area.
II. Methods, technique, procedures.
Unlike methodology, research methods and procedures are a system of more or less formalized rules for collecting, processing and analyzing information.
To study the problem posed, methodological assumptions and principles play a decisive role in the choice of certain methods.
Neither in Soviet nor in foreign practice is there a single word usage regarding particular methods of sociological research. Some authors call the same system of actions a method, others a technique, others a procedure or technique, and sometimes a methodology.
Let us introduce the following meanings of words:
Method - the main way to collect, process or analyze data.
Technique - a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method.
Methodology - a concept that denotes a set of techniques associated with a given method, including private operations, their sequence and relationship.
For example: Method - questionnaire survey:
Procedure - the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the study. This is the most general concept related to the system of methods for collecting and processing sociological information.
For example: Conducted under the guidance of B.A. Grushin's study of the formation and functioning of public opinion as a typical mass process included 69 procedures. Each of them is, as it were, a complete miniature empirical study, which is organically included in the general theoretical and methodological program.
Thus, one of the procedures is devoted to the analysis of the content of the central and local mass media on the problems of international life;
the other - aims to establish the effect of these materials on the reader;
the third is the study of a number of other sources that influence awareness on international issues;
Some procedures use the same data collection method (for example, quantitative text analysis), but different techniques (text analysis units can be larger - topic and smaller - concepts, names).
The methodology of this large-scale study is concentrated in its general concept, the essence of the hypotheses developed and tested further, in the final generalization and theoretical understanding of the results obtained.
An analysis of all the methodological, technical and procedural features of the work of a sociologist shows that, along with special methods, general scientific ones are used, borrowed from other disciplines, especially from economic, historical, and psychological ones.
A sociologist must master the techniques of statistical analysis, and therefore know the relevant sections of mathematics and statistics, otherwise he will not be able to correctly determine the method of processing and analyzing the collected material, to quantify the meaningful primary material, i.e. quantitatively display qualitative features (present the properties and relationships of social objects in a quantitative form).
III. Sociological research is the main method of sociology. His classification.
(See Lecture on “The Program and Organization of Sociological Research in the Social Sphere” pp. 4-14).
Faculty of Sociology
Lecture #6
Methodology and principles of a systematic approach to the analysis of social objects.
I. Methodology
II. Methods, technique, procedures.
III. An integrated approach and system-functional analysis in sociology.
Literature
I. V. A. Yadov “Sociological research: methodology, program, methods” M. Nauka 1987
II.M-l sociology / Under. ed. N. I. Dryakhlova, B. V. Knyazeva, V. Ya. Nechaeva - M. Publishing House of Moscow University, 1989 (p. 124)
Averyanov A. N. Systemic understanding of the world: methodological problems M. Politizdat, 1985
Methodology and principles of a systematic approach to the analysis of social objects.
III. An integrated approach and system-functional analysis in sociology.
In the study of social reality, an integrated approach is of fundamental methodological importance. This is explained by the fact that every social phenomenon is multifaceted. In addition, no less important are those specific components that characterize the diverse conditions that determine this social phenomenon.
Let's single them out:
I. Correspondence and consistency of the dynamics of a social phenomenon with the general perspective of the development of the socio-economic system, i.e. how and to what extent the specificity of the socio-economic formation is represented in this social phenomenon, to what extent it is adequate.
II. The role and place of this social phenomenon in the existing socio-economic system.
III. The connection of this social phenomenon with a specific type of production, its specificity and scale (a branch of the national economy, an enterprise, a team, etc.).
IV. The connection of a social phenomenon with the region, certain territorial and economic conditions, their mutual dependence and conditionality.
V. Ethnic characteristics of a social phenomenon, the influence of the national factor on the course of the social process.
VI. Political character and political form of this social phenomenon.
VII. A social phenomenon and the time in which it occurs, i.e. specific conditions (established norms, value orientations, opinions, traditions, etc.).
VIII. The social subject with which the social phenomenon is associated, the level of its organization, the degree of socio-psychological stability, maturity, etc.
All these factors are in constant interaction. The concrete state of a social phenomenon is the integrated result of this interaction.
Consequently, it is possible to correctly understand a social phenomenon only through a comprehensive coverage of the action of all the diverse forces and dependencies.
Thus, an integrated approach is a well-thought-out, scientifically substantiated system of cognitive activity of representatives of various disciplines.
For example: It is being studied: “The stability of the labor collective”.
the following characteristics should be studied:
economic;
Socio-political;
Socio-psychological;
Social;
Very often, the object under study seems to exist on its own, but the first thing a sociologist should do when studying it is to reveal the entire multifaceted nature of the connections and interacting components of this object, i.e. its integrity.
Integrity, expressing the same quality of the whole and its elements, is a necessary characteristic of the objective reality of a certain quality.
Wholeness reveals to us all interactions of the whole and the necessity of these interactions.
For example: “Labor collective” is a whole.
And a holistic view of it is the knowledge of such connections as the attitude to the means of production of a given team, the form of labor organization, formal and informal connections, etc.
So, an integrated approach in sociology expresses the need to take into account the interactions of a social phenomenon in its specific state, which would make it possible to reveal the integrity of the reality under study to the greatest extent.
System-functional analysis in sociology reveals the dialectic of the whole and the part.
System analysis, a systematic approach is a necessary component of the dialectical materialist method.
Thus, it should be emphasized once again that the essence of a systematic approach (analysis) in sociology is to strictly and consistently proceed from knowledge of the integrity of the social process and social organization in the study of a social phenomenon in its specific state and to consider the studied social object as a necessary organ or element of the socio-political system.
The relationship of the system, its organs and parts is fixed as a functional dependence and, in general terms, can be represented as a system-functional characteristic of the whole.
A function is defined as the relation of a whole to something.
For example: The problem “Social protection of students” is being studied.
The social phenomenon is complicated by the fact that it represents the moment of the subject's action through a specific function.
System-functional analysis allows you to penetrate into the real social situation and learn the social phenomenon.
1. Dobrenkov V.I., Kravchenko A.I. Sociology. Textbook. M., INFRA-M, 2004.
2. Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: General course: Proc. allowance for universities. – M.: PER SE; Logos, 2000
3. Sociology: Fundamentals of General Theory: A Textbook for High Schools / Ed. Osipova G.V., Moskvicheva L.N. - M., 2005
4. Abercrombie N. Sociological Dictionary / N. Abercrombie, S. Hill, B.S. Turner; per. from English. I.G. Yasaveeva; ed. S.A. Erofeev. - 2nd ed., Revised. and additional - M.: Economics, 2004.
5. Russian sociological encyclopedia / ed. ed. G.V. Osipov. M.: NORMA-INFRA. M, 1999.
6. Smelzer N. Sociology: Per. from English. – M.: Phoenix, 1998.
7. Sociology: Encyclopedia / Comp. A.A.Gritsanov, V.L.Abushenko, G.M.Evelkin, G.N.Sokolova, O.V.Tereshchenko. - Minsk: Book House, 2003
8. Encyclopedic sociological dictionary / General. ed. G.V. Osipova. — M.: ISPI RAN, 1995.
Sociology as a science
1. Object and subject of sociology.
2. The structure of sociology.
3. Functions of sociology.
O. Comte- the founder of sociology as a science.
In 1839 he first used the term "Sociology" and put forward the task of studying society on a scientific basis in the third volume of his work "Course of Positive Philosophy".
1. Object and subject of sociology.
object sociological knowledge is society considered as a single social organism. In other words, as an object of sociological knowledge, the whole set of properties, connections and relationships between people, emerging in the process of their life .
Thing same sociology, since it is the result of research activities, can not be defined as unambiguously. The understanding of the subject of sociology has changed throughout the history of the existence of this science. Representatives of various schools and directions have expressed and continue to express different understandings of it. And this is natural, since the subject of science is in close connection with the research activities of scientists.
Founder of sociology, French thinker O. Comte believed that sociology is a positive science of society. Eminent French sociologist E. Durkheim called the subject of sociology social facts. At the same time, social, according to Durkheim, means collective. Therefore, the subject of sociology, in his opinion, is the collective in all its manifestations.
From the point of view of a German sociologist M. Weber, sociology is the science of social behavior, which it seeks to understand and interpret. Behavior is considered social when, according to the meaning given to it by the subject, it is correlated with the behavior of other individuals.
The following definition of sociology is widely used in our domestic literature. Sociology is the science of society as a social system as a whole, of the functioning and development of this system through its constituent elements: individuals, social communities, institutions ( G.V. Osipov).
No single definition of sociology is exhaustive due to the variety of concepts and trends.
2. Structure of sociology.
When studying and explaining various kinds of social phenomena and processes, sociologists use five main approaches.
1. Demographic . Demography is the study of a population, especially births, deaths, migration and related human activities. For example, a demographic analysis of third world countries could explain their economic backwardness by the fact that they have to spend a large part of the funds to feed a rapidly growing population.
2. Psychological . It explains behavior in terms of its significance to people as individuals. The motives, thoughts, skills, social attitudes, ideas of a person about himself are studied.
3. collectivist . It is used when studying two or more people forming a group or organization. This approach can also be applied in the study of groups, bureaucratic organizations and various kinds of communities. It can be used to analyze competition between political parties, conflicts on a racial and religious basis, rivalry between groups. In addition, this approach is important in the study of collective behavior, such as the actions of the crowd, the reaction of the audience, as well as social movements such as civil rights and feminism.
4. interactive . Social life is considered not through the specific people involved in it, but through their interaction with each other, due to their roles.
5. cultural . This approach is applied in the analysis of behavior on the basis of such elements of culture as social rules and social values. In the culturological approach, the rules of behavior, or norms, are considered as factors that regulate the actions of individuals and the actions of groups.
Society Research Levels:
1. level of fundamental research, whose task is to increase scientific knowledge by constructing theories that reveal the universal laws and principles of this area;
2. level of applied research, in which the task is to study topical problems of direct practical value, based on existing fundamental knowledge;
3. social engineering the level of practical implementation of scientific knowledge in order to design various technical means and improve existing technologies. This classification makes it possible to single out three levels in the structure of sociology: theoretical sociology, applied sociology, and social engineering.
Along with these three levels, sociologists also distinguish macro- and microsociology within their science. Macrosociology explores large-scale social systems and historically long processes (functionalism - Merton, Parsons, conflict theory - Marx, Dahrendorf, Koser). Microsociology studies everyday behavior of people in their direct interpersonal interaction (exchange theory - George Homans, Peter Blau, ethnomethodology - G. Garfinkel, symbolic interactionism - Charles Cooley, W. Thomas, G. Simmel, J. G. Mead).
A peculiar form of intersection of all these levels are such structural elements of sociology as branch sociology Keywords: sociology of labor, economic sociology, sociology of organizations, sociology of leisure, sociology of health, sociology of the city, sociology of the countryside, sociology of education, sociology of the family, etc. In this case, we are talking about the division of labor in the field of sociology according to the nature of the objects under study.
The original concept of the development of sociology was put forward by the American sociologist R. Merton. In 1947, arguing with T. Parsons, who advocated the creation in sociology of "an all-encompassing theory based on the theory of social action and the structural-functional method." R. Merton believed that the creation of such theories is premature, since there is still no reliable empirical basis. He believed that it was necessary to create theories middle level. They are are called upon to generalize and structure empirical data within certain areas of sociological knowledge. Theories of the middle level are thus relatively independent and, at the same time, are closely connected both with empirical research (which provides the necessary "raw" material for their development) and with general sociological theoretical constructions.
All middle-level theories are conditionally divided into three groups: theories of social institutions (sociology of the family, education, science, religion, art, army, politics, religion, labor), theories of social communities (sociology of small groups, organizations, crowds, ethnosociology, feminist sociology), theories of social processes (sociology of deviant behavior, conflicts, mobility and migration, city, social movements).
3. Functions of sociology.
Cognitive- the growth of new knowledge about various spheres of social life, reveals the patterns and prospects for the social development of society.
application function– solution of practical social problems.
Function of social control. Sociological research provides concrete information for the implementation of effective social control over social processes. Without this information, the possibility of social tension, social crises and cataclysms increases. In the overwhelming majority of countries, executive and representative authorities, political parties and associations make extensive use of the possibilities of sociology to conduct a targeted policy in all spheres of public life.
The predictive function of sociology is development of scientifically based forecasts about the trends in the development of social processes in the future. In this regard, sociology is able to: 1) determine the range of possibilities, probabilities that open up to the participants in events at a given historical stage; 2) present alternative scenarios for future processes associated with each of the selected solutions; 3) calculate the likely costs for each of the alternatives, including side effects, as well as long-term consequences, etc.
Social planning function. Of great importance in the life of society is the use of sociological research for planning the development of various spheres of public life. Social planning is developed in all countries of the world, regardless of social systems.
Ideological function. The results of research can be used in the interests of any social groups to achieve certain social goals. Sociological knowledge often serves as a means of manipulating people's behavior, forming certain behavioral stereotypes, creating a system of value and social preferences, etc.
Humanistic function. Sociology can also serve to improve mutual understanding between people, to form a sense of closeness in them, which, in the end, contributes to the improvement of social relations.
social structure.
1. Interpersonal interaction and social structure: the concept of role.
2. Description of the roles.
3. Role conflict and role tension
4. Social institutions.
1. INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE: THE CONCEPT OF ROLE
Personality is a system of social qualities of an individual. An individual is a single person taken as a representative of the human race, individuality is a unique combination of human qualities.
Socialization is the process of becoming a person.
Each person occupies several positions in society. For example, a woman can be a musician, teacher, wife and mother. Each of these social positions, associated with certain rights and obligations, is called a status. social status is the position a person occupies in society. Although a person may have a number of statuses, one of them, which can be called main status determines his social position. Often the main status of a person is due to his work.
Some statuses are given from birth. In addition, statuses are determined by gender, ethnic origin, place of birth, family name. Such statuses are called attributed (prescribed ).
Vice versa, reached (acquired ) status determined by what a person has achieved in his life. The status of a writer is acquired as a result of the publication of a book; husband's status - after obtaining permission to marry and entering into marriage. No one is born an author or a husband. Some statuses combine prescribed and achieved elements. Earning a PhD degree is undoubtedly an achievement. But, once received, the new status remains forever, becomes a permanent part of the personality and social role of a person, defining all his intentions and goals as a prescribed status.
role called the expected behavior due to the status of a person (Linton, cited in: Merton, 1957). Each status usually includes a number of roles. The set of roles corresponding to this status is called role set (Merton, 1957).
Assimilation of different roles is a significant part of the process socialization (socialization is the process of personality formation). Our roles are defined by what others expect of us . Thus, in the structure of roles, there are role expectation(behavior expected by others based on our status) and role performance(how we behave based on the status we occupy and the role associated with it).
Exist formal and informal role expectations .
A distinction can be made between them. The most striking example of the former are the laws . Other expectations may be less formal, such as table manners, dress code, and courtesy, but they also have a big impact on how we behave.
Reactions , which can be caused by our actions that do not correspond to role expectations, can also be classified as formal and informal . When a person's actions correspond to role expectations, he receives such social remuneration , as money and respect . Taken together, these encouragement and punishment called sanctions . Applied by one or more interacting individuals or someone else, sanctions reinforce the rules that determine what behavior is appropriate in a given situation (Good, 1960).
2. ROLES DESCRIPTION
An attempt to systematize social roles was made by Talcott Parsons and his colleagues (1951). They believed that any role can be described using five main characteristics:
1. Emotionality . Some roles (for example, nurse, doctor, or funeral home owner) require emotional restraint in situations that are usually accompanied by a violent manifestation of feelings (we are talking about illness, suffering, death). Less restrained expression of feelings is expected from family members and friends.
2. How to obtain . Some roles are conditioned by prescribed statuses, such as child, youth or adult citizen; they are determined by the age of the person playing the role. Other roles are being won; when we talk about the doctor of medicine, we mean a role that is not achieved automatically, but as a result of the efforts of the individual.
3. Scale . Some roles are limited to strictly defined aspects of human interaction. For example, the roles of physician and patient are limited to matters that directly relate to the health of the patient. Between a small child and his mother or father, a larger relationship is established; Every parent is concerned about many aspects of a child's life.
4. Formalization . Some roles involve interacting with people in accordance with established rules. For example, a librarian is required to lend out books for a specified period and demand a fine for each day late from those who delay the books. In other roles, special treatment is allowed for those with whom you have developed a personal relationship. For example, we do not expect a brother or sister to pay us for a service rendered to them, although we could take payment from a stranger.
5. Motivation . Different roles are due to different motives. It is expected, say, that an enterprising person is preoccupied with his own interests - his actions are determined by the desire to obtain maximum profit. But a social worker like the Bureau of Unemployment is supposed to work primarily for the public good, not for personal gain.
According to Parsons, any role includes some combination of these characteristics.
3. Role conflict and role tension
Since each person plays several roles in many different situations (in the family, among friends, in a community, in society), there are always conflicts between roles.
Role conflict arises:
1. due to the need to satisfy the requirements of two or more roles (Merton, 1957). This is a common occurrence in highly organized societies, where each person plays a huge variety of roles.
2. when people move from one social class to another when they seek to maintain already established relationships with their family members and old friends.
3. between different aspects of the same role .
Ways to overcome role conflict
Merton (1957) believes that there are several ways to reduce role conflict.
First way : Some roles are recognized as more important than others.
Second way : separation of some roles from others.
There are other, more subtle ways to reduce role conflict. One of them is a joke. Role conflicts, especially those that arise within the family, create tension. A joke can help us give vent to our feelings, say, if the husband comes home drunk at night or the mother-in-law constantly grumbles. Jokes "combine our friendliness and at the same time our disapproval of certain actions; they help overcome the hostility that usually arises in conflict situations" (Brain, 1976, p. 178).
4. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS.
Institute called a set of roles and statuses, designed to meet a specific social need.
One of the important features of the institution is its compliance with "social needs".
Almost all theorists of the social sciences have sought to determine what is necessary to maintain the life of society. Karl Marx believed that the basis of society is the need for material support for survival, which can only be satisfied through the joint activities of people; without it society cannot exist. In other words, the type of society is determined by the way people organize their activities for the purpose of their material survival .
Other theorists of the social sciences view social needs differently. Herbert Spencer(1897), who compared society with a biological organism, emphasized the need for "active defense" (we are talking about military affairs) to fight "surrounding enemies and robbers", the need for activities that support "basic livelihoods" (agriculture, clothing production), the need for exchange (i.e. markets) and the need to coordinate these various activities (i.e. in the state).
Finally, more modern researchers G. Lensky and J. Lensky(1970) compiled the following list of essential elements needed to maintain the integrity of society.
1. Communication between members of society . Every society has a common spoken language.
2. Production of goods and services necessary for the survival of members of society.
3. Distribution these goods and services.
4. Protection of members of society from physical danger (storms, floods and cold), from other biological organisms (for example, pests) and enemies.
5. Replacing outgoing members society through biological reproduction and through the assimilation of a certain culture by individuals in the process of socialization.
6. Member Behavior Control society in order to create conditions for the creative activity of the society and the settlement of conflicts between its members.
Institutions serve not only to organize the joint activities of people in order to meet their social needs. They also regulate the use of the resources available to society. One of the important functions of institutions is to stabilize people's activities by reducing them to more or less predictable patterns of social roles. Institutions very rarely remain stable for a long time. The conditions affecting them are constantly changing.
SOCIAL GROUPS
1. The concept of a social group. Types of social groups.
2. Functions and roles of groups.
3. Structure and dynamics of groups.
1. The concept of a social group. Types of social groups.
WHAT IS A GROUP?
Merton (1968) defines a group as a collection of people who interact with each other in a certain way, are aware of their belonging to this group and are considered members of it from the point of view of other people.
First essential feature groups- a certain way of interaction between their members. These characteristic patterns of activity and interaction determine the structure of groups.
Second important feature groups membership, a sense of belonging to a given group.
According to Merton, people who belong to groups are perceived by others as members of these groups. The group has its own identity from the point of view of outsiders - the third feature - group identity.
Group types.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS
Primary group consists of a small number of people between whom relationships are established based on their individual characteristics. Primary groups are not large, otherwise it is difficult to establish direct, personal relationships between all members.
Charles Cooley(1909) was the first to introduce the concept of the primary group in relation to the family, between the members of which there are stable emotional relationships. .
secondary group It is formed from people between whom there are almost no emotional relationships, their interaction is due to the desire to achieve certain goals. In these groups, the main importance is given not to personal qualities, but to the ability to perform certain functions. The individual characteristics of each mean almost nothing to the organization and vice versa, members of the family or group of players are unique. Their personal qualities play an important role, none can be replaced by someone else.
Due to the fact that the roles in the secondary group are clearly defined, its members often know very little about each other. In the organization associated with labor activity, the main ones are industrial relations. Thus, not only the roles, but also the means of communication are clearly defined. Communication is often more formal and is carried out through written documents or telephone calls.
Small groups.
Small groups are only those groups in which individuals have personal contacts each with each.
small group- a small number of people who know each other well and constantly interact with each other.
Example: sports team, school class, youth party, production team.
Sometimes in the literature the term "small group" is equated with the term "primary group".
Main signs of a small group:
· Limited number of group members . The upper limit is 20, the lower limit is 2 people. If the group exceeds the "critical mass", then it breaks up into subgroups.
· Composition stability .
· Internal structure . It includes a system of informal roles and statuses, a mechanism of social control, sanctions, norms and rules of conduct.
· The smaller the group, the more intense the interaction in it. .
· The size of the group depends on the nature of the group's activities. .
· Interaction in a group is stable only when it is accompanied by mutual reinforcement of the people participating in it. .
2. Functions and roles of groups.
Instrumental role of the band
Many groups form to do a particular job. These instrumental groups are necessary for doing things that are difficult or impossible for one person to do. A construction team, a group of surgeons, a production line in production, and a football team are created to achieve certain goals.
Expressive aspect in group formation
Some kinds of groups are called expressive. They aim to satisfy the desire of group members for social approval, respect and trust. Such groups are formed spontaneously with relatively little outside influence. Examples groups of friends and teenagers who enjoy playing, playing sports or having parties together can serve as such groups. However, there is no clearly defined boundary between instrumental and expressive groups.
Supportive role of groups
People come together not only to perform joint activities and satisfy social needs, but also to reduce unpleasant feelings.
3. Structure and dynamics of groups.
When a set of people becomes a group, norms and roles are formed, on the basis of which the order (or pattern) of interaction is established. Sociologists study these patterns, and they have been able to identify a number of factors that influence their formation. Among these factors, one of the most important is the size of the group.
GROUP SIZE
Dyads
Dyad, or group of two people(for example, lovers or two best friends) has some unique features. She is very fragile and is destroyed if one of the members leaves the group.
Triads
When a third person joins a group of two, a triad is formed, in which complex relationships usually develop. Sooner or later, there will be a rapprochement between two members of the group and the exclusion of a third from it. "Two people form a company, three form a crowd": this is how the third member of the group is unambiguously made clear that he is superfluous. According to the point of view of the German sociologist of the XIX century. Georg Simmel, who had a great influence on group research, the third member of the group can play one of the following roles: an indifferent mediator, an opportunist who takes advantage of others, and a divide-and-conquer tactician.
Larger groups
Increasing the size of a group affects the behavior of its members in many ways. Larger groups (consisting of five or six people) are more productive than dyads and triads. Members of larger groups typically contribute more value propositions than members of smaller groups. In a larger group, there is less agreement, but also less tension. In addition, large groups put more pressure on their members, increasing their conformity. In such groups, there is inequality between members. There is evidence that groups with an even number of members differ from groups with odd composition. The former are more discordant than the latter, and therefore groups with an even number of members are less stable. They can break up into factions with an equal number of members. This is not possible in groups with an odd number of members: in them, one of the parties always has a numerical advantage.
GROUP DYNAMICS
In groups, events and dynamic processes take place, periodically repeating in a certain sequence. These include pressure on group members to conform, exclusion from the group, and role formation.
Family.
1. The concept of family.
2. Dimensions of the family structure
3. Family alternatives
4. Social functions of the family
5. Family policy
1. The concept of family.
In any society, the family has a dual character. On the one hand, this social institution, with another - small group, which has its own patterns of functioning and development. Another public institution is closely connected with the institution of the family - the institution marriage. Marriage- sanctioned by society, socially and personally expedient, sustainable form of sexual relations.
Family- This is a small group whose members are connected by marriage and kinship, common life, mutual moral responsibility and mutual assistance. A distinctive feature of the family is the joint conduct of the household.
2. FAMILY STRUCTURE DIMENSIONS
The nature of the family structure depends on a number of factors: the form of the family, the underlying form of marriage, the distribution of power, the place of residence, and so on.
Family form.
Sociologists and anthropologists have introduced a number of parameters against which different family structures can be compared. This makes it possible to make generalizations about many societies.
Nuclear family consists of adult parents and children who depend on them. To many Americans, this type of family seems natural.
extended family(unlike the first type of family structure) includes a nuclear family and many relatives, such as grandparents, grandchildren, uncles, aunts, cousins and sisters.
FORM OF MARRIAGE
The main form of marriage is monogamy- Marriage between one man and one woman. However, there are reports of several other forms. Polygamy A marriage between one and several other individuals. Marriage between one man and several women polygyny; marriage between one woman and several men polyandry. Another form is group marriage- between several men and several women.
TYPES OF POWER STRUCTURES
Most family systems in which extended families are considered the norm (for example, peasant families in Ireland) are patriarchal. This term refers to the power of men over other members of the family. This type of power is considered generally accepted and often legalized in Thailand, Japan, Germany, Iran, Brazil and many other countries.. At matriarchal In the family system, power rightfully belongs to the wife and mother. Such systems are rare. In many families in patriarchal societies, the woman assumes informal power, but this is not the norm.
In recent years, there has been a shift from patriarchal to egalitarian family system. This is mainly due to the increase in the number of working women in many industrialized countries. Under such a system, influence and power are distributed between husband and wife almost equally.
PREFERRED PARTNER
The rules governing marriages outside certain groups (such as families or clans) are rules exogamy. Along with them, there are rules endogamy, prescribing marriage within certain groups.
RESIDENCE SELECTION RULE
In societies, there are different rules for choosing the place of residence of the newlyweds. In the US, most of them prefer neolocal residence - this means that they live separately from their parents. Patrilocal residence - the newlywed leaves her family and lives with her husband's family or near his parents' house. In societies where the norm is matrilocal residence, newlyweds must live with or near the bride's parents.
3. FAMILY ALTERNATIVES
Over the past decades, several alternatives to family life have emerged. Among them, the main ones are living together without marriage and creation of a commune.
Living together
In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of heterosexual couples living together but not marrying. Some non-traditional families are not based on sexual relationships, for example, they include older women who rent out rooms to college students, or older men who hire nurses or housekeepers who live in their home.
Most unmarried couples do not have children. However, they challenge the family's monopoly on the regulation of intimate relationships between adults. Of particular concern is the legal aspect of these relationships, since there is no law that controls the behavior of partners.
In many ways, unmarried couples are like spouses. For example, data has been obtained that such partners have values, attitudes and goals that are usually inherent in spouses. But, as a rule, they are less religious and less likely to attend church than legal husbands and wives (Newcomb, 1979).
Life in the commune
The trend towards the creation of communes arose in the 60s as a form of protest against the existing social order. Many people who chose the communal life saw the traditional family as unsustainable and inefficient. Some communes also set themselves religious and other utopian goals. Most communes had many adults; some were married to each other; their children lived with the adults. However, marriage and blood ties played only a secondary role in the life of the communes.
The trend towards the creation of communes as a form of ideological protest began to wane in the 1970s and cannot be considered vital today (Zabloki, 1980). Nevertheless, during the 1970s, the number of communal links continued to grow, although they began to be created not for ideological, but rather for practical reasons. For example, in communes, people may be given greater opportunities for economic cooperation than in a nuclear family (Whitehurst, 1981).
Some sociologists find similarities between communes and extended families from the lower and working classes (Berger, Hackett, Miller, 1972). Like children in working-class families, young communal residents have many male and female role models, often with multiple surrogate mothers and fathers (Berger, 1972).
Finally, in communes where it is customary to express their feelings frankly and not stand on ceremony too much, fathers often leave their wife and children. As a result, there is an increase in the number of women who have to be the sole parent of their children, which is also characteristic of the lower class. Like lower-class women, single women living in communes usually expect support and love from those around them.
4. Social functions of the family:
1. Organization and regulation of sexual behavior;
2. Birth of children;
3. Caring for children until they can take care of themselves;
4. Socialization of children;
5. Emotional function (love, care, providing emotional security);
6. Providing leisure and recreation for family members.
Murdoch identified 4 main vital social functions of the family:
1. Regulation of potentially destructive sexuality through a socially approved control system such as marriage;
2. Reproduction of offspring by easily identified and responsible parents;
3. Production and distribution of such resources for the maintenance of the population as food, clothing, livelihoods;
4. Transfer of cultural patterns from generation to generation through education and training.
5. FAMILY POLICY
There have been many changes in family and family life today; many observers see them as social problems that deserve public attention. Among them are the following problems:
a decrease in the level of marriages;
· an increase in the number of divorces and spouses living separately;
· increasing the number of couples living together who do not marry;
an increase in the number of children born out of wedlock;
· an increase in the number of single-parent families headed by women;
Decrease in the birth rate and family size;
· change in the distribution of family responsibilities, due to the growing involvement of women in the labor force; participation of both parents in the upbringing of the child.
While these changes have been uneven and troubling in varying degrees, they collectively have contributed to the creation of a new field of knowledge called "family policy" (Kammerman and Kahn, 1978). This term refers to all aspects of social policy that have a direct or indirect impact on family size, stability, health, wealth, and so on.
Social structure and stratification. Mobility.
1. The concept of social stratification. Stratification types.
2. Classes. Models of the class structure of society
3. Social mobility
1. The concept of social stratification. Stratification types.
To describe the system of inequality between groups (communities) of people in sociology, the concept is widely used "social stratification". Stratification- hierarchical stratification of society due to differences between people. Inequality(generally) - unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption.
At the same time, under equality understand: 1) personal equality; 2) equality of opportunities to achieve the desired goals (equality of chances), 3) equality of living conditions (welfare, education, etc.); 4) equality of results. Inequality, obviously, implies the same four types of human relationships, but with the opposite sign.
social stratification describes social inequality in society, the division of social strata by income level and lifestyle, by the presence or absence of privileges.
Grounds for stratification power, income, prestige and education.
Income- the amount of cash receipts of an individual or family for a certain period of time (month, year). This is the amount of money received in the form of salaries, pensions, benefits, alimony, fees, deductions from profits. Incomes are most often spent on maintaining life, but if they are very high, they accumulate and turn into wealth. Wealth - accumulated income, that is, the amount of cash or embodied money. In the second case, they are called movable (car, yacht, securities, etc.) and immovable (house, works of art, treasures) property.
Power- the ability to impose one's will against the will of others.
Prestige- respect, which in public opinion enjoys a particular profession, position, occupation.
Income, power, prestige and education determine aggregate socioeconomic status, i.e., the position and place of a person in society. Status acts as a generalized indicator of stratification.
Historical types of stratification: slavery, castes, estates, classes.
2. Classes. Models of the class structure of society.
Class systems differ in many ways from systems of slavery, castes, and estates. Class features:
1. Unlike other types of strata, classes are not created on the basis of legal and religious norms; membership is not based on heredity or custom . Class systems are more fluid than other systems of stratification, and the boundaries between classes are never clearly defined. There are also no formal restrictions on marriages between representatives of different classes..
2. Membership of an individual in a class must be "achieved" by him, and not just be “given” from birth, as in other types of stratification systems.
social mobility- moving up and down in the class structure is much easier than in other types (in the caste system, individual mobility, transition from one caste to another is impossible).
3. Classes depend on economic differences between groups of people associated with inequality in the ownership and control of material resources. In other types of stratification systems, non-economic factors (such as the influence of religion in the Indian system) are most important.
Classes(layers) - large groups of people, differing in their general economic opportunities, which significantly affect the types of their lifestyle.
Main classes existing in Western societies: top class(those who own and directly control production resources, the rich, large industrialists, the top management); middle class("white collar" and professionals); working class("blue collar" or manual workers).
In some industrialized countries, such as France or Japan, the fourth class is the peasantry. In Third World countries, peasants usually make up the largest class.
Models of the class structure of society
Currently, there are a large number of models of class structures. The most famous W. Watson model, which was the result of research conducted in the 30s. in the USA:
1. Top-top class- representatives of influential wealthy dynasties with very significant resources of power, wealth and prestige throughout the state. Their position is so strong that it practically does not depend on competition, depreciation of securities and other socio-economic changes in society.
2. Lower-upper class- bankers, prominent politicians, owners of large firms who have reached the highest status in the course of competition or due to various qualities. Usually, representatives of this class are fiercely competitive and depend on the political and economic situation in society.
3. upper-middle class successful businessmen, hired company managers, big lawyers, doctors, outstanding sportsmen, scientific elite. Representatives of this class do not claim influence on the scale of the state, however, in rather narrow areas of their activity
position is strong and stable. They enjoy high prestige in their fields of activity. Representatives of this class are usually spoken of as the wealth of the nation.
4. lower-middle class- employees (engineers, middle and small officials, teachers, scientists, heads of departments at enterprises, highly skilled workers, etc.). At present, this class is the most numerous in the developed Western countries. His main aspirations are raising the status within this class, success and career. In this regard, for representatives of this class, a very important point is economic, social and political stability in society. Speaking for stability, representatives of this class are the main support for the existing government.
5. upper-lower class wage workers who create surplus value in a given society. Dependent in many respects on the upper classes for their livelihood, this class struggled throughout its existence to improve their lives. In those moments when its representatives realized their interests and rallied to achieve their goals, their conditions improved.
6. Lower-n lower class– the poor, the unemployed, the homeless, foreign workers and other marginalized groups.
Experience The use of the Watson model showed that in the presented form it is in most cases unacceptable for the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and our society, where a different social structure developed in the course of historical processes, there were fundamentally different status groups. However, at present, due to the changes that have taken place in our society, many elements of Watson's structure can be used in the course of studying the composition of the social classes in Russia and Belarus.
Middle class.
Middle class- a set of social strata occupying an intermediate position between the main classes in the system of social stratification.
In almost all developed countries, the share of the middle class is 55-60%.
The middle classes express a tendency to reduce the contradictions between the content of labor of various professions, urban and rural lifestyles, they are conductors of the values of the traditional family, which is combined with an orientation towards equality of opportunities for men and women in educational, professional, and cultural terms. It is a bulwark of the values of modern society, a bulwark of stability, a guarantee of the evolution of social development, the formation and functioning of civil society.
3. Social mobility
social mobility- the movement of individuals between different levels of the social hierarchy. All social movements of an individual or a social group are included in the process of mobility. By P. Sorokin, "social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another."
Types of social mobility:
1. Horizontal mobility- this is the transition of an individual or a social object from one social position to another, lying on the same level (transition of an individual from one family to another, from one religious group to another, as well as a change of residence). In all these cases, the individual does not change the social stratum to which he belongs, or social status.
2. Vertical mobility- a set of interactions that contribute to the transition of an individual or a social object from one social stratum to another ( promotion (professional vertical mobility), a significant improvement in well-being (economic vertical mobility) or a transition to a higher social stratum, to another level of power (political vertical mobility)). Vertical mobility is ascending(social uplift) and descending(social decline).
Forms of mobility: individual and group.
Closed type of society characterized by zero vertical mobility in contrast to open.
Culture as a social phenomenon.
1. The concept of culture.
2. Universal elements of culture.
3. Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
4. Forms of culture.
1. The concept of culture.
culture - these are beliefs, values and expressive means (used in art and literature) that are common to a group; they serve to streamline the experience and regulate the behavior of the members of that group. The beliefs and attitudes of a subgroup are often referred to as a subculture.
The assimilation of culture is carried out with the help of learning. As you know, humans are unique in that their behavior is only partly dictated by instinct.
Culture organizes human life. In human life, culture to a large extent performs the same function that genetically programmed behavior performs in the life of animals.
Culture is created, culture is taught. Since it is not acquired biologically, each generation reproduces it and passes it on to the next generation. This process is the basis of socialization. As a result of the assimilation of values, beliefs, norms, rules and ideals, the child's personality is formed and his behavior is regulated.
So, culture forms the personality of members of society, thereby it largely regulates behavior.
The power of culture cannot be overestimated.. The ability of culture to control human behavior is limited for many reasons. First of all, boundless biological capabilities of the human body . Exactly the same exists limit of knowledge that the human brain can absorb. environmental factors also limit the impact of culture.
Maintaining a sustainable social order also limits the influence of culture. The very survival of society dictates the need to condemn acts such as murder, theft, arson.
2. Elements of culture.
Common features common to all cultures cultural universals.
George Murdoch(1965) identified over 60 cultural universals. These include sports, body decoration, community work, dancing, education, funeral rites, gift giving, hospitality, incest prohibitions, jokes, language, religious practices, sexual restraints, tool making, and attempts to influence the weather.
However, different cultures may have different sports, decorations, etc. The environment is one of the factors causing these differences. In addition, all cultural characteristics are conditioned by the history of a certain society and are formed as a result of a unique development of events. On the basis of different cultures, different sports, bans on consanguineous marriages and languages have arisen, but the main thing is that in one form or another they are present in every culture.
Basic elements of culture.
According to the anthropologist Ward Goodenow, culture consists of four elements:
1.Concepts(signs and symbols). They are found mainly in the language. Thanks to them, it becomes possible to streamline the experience of people. For example, we perceive the shape, color and taste of objects in the world around us, but in different cultures the world is organized differently. In German, eating by humans and eating by animals are denoted by different words, while in English both denote the same word. Welsh has a wordglas, denoting all the colors that in English are denoted as green, blue and gray.
2.Relations. Cultures not only distinguish certain parts of the world with the help of concepts, but also reveal how these constituent parts are interconnected - in space and time, by meaning (for example, black is the opposite of white), on the basis of causation. Our language has words for the Earth and the Sun, and we are sure that the earth revolves around the sun. But before Copernicus, people believed the opposite was true. Cultures often interpret relationships differently.
3.Values. Values are generally accepted beliefs about the goals that a person should strive for. They form the basis of moral principles. Different cultures may favor different values (heroism on the battlefield, artistic creativity, asceticism), and each social order determines what is and is not a value.
4.Rules. These elements (including norms) regulate people's behavior in accordance with the values of a particular culture. Norms can represent standards of conduct. But why do people tend to obey them. Even if it's not in their interests? Social punishments or rewards that encourage compliance with norms are called sanctions. Punishments that deter people from doing certain things negative sanctions(fine, imprisonment, reprimand, etc.). Positive sanctions- incentives for compliance with the norms (monetary reward, empowerment, high prestige).
In addition to these elements of culture, one can also distinguish such as, etiquette, customs, rituals, traditions.
3. Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge other cultures in terms of the superiority of one's own. The principles of ethnocentrism find clear expression in the activities of missionaries who seek to convert the "barbarians" to their faith. Ethnocentrism is associated with xenophobia- fear, hostility to other people's views and customs.
American sociologist William Graham Sumner wrote about it in the book "Folk customs". Published in 1906. In his own opinion, a culture can only be understood on the basis of an analysis of its own values in its own context. This point of view is called cultural relativism. Readers of Sumner's book were shocked to read that cannibalism and infanticide made sense in societies where such customs were practiced.
Another American scientist is an anthropologist Ruth Benedict(1934) improved this concept as follows: each culture can only be understood in its own context and must be considered as a whole. No single value, ritual, or other feature of a given culture can be fully understood when viewed in isolation.
4. Forms of culture.
In most European societies, two forms of culture had developed by the beginning of the 20th century.
High(elite) culture- fine arts, classical music and literature - were created and perceived by the elite. Folk the culture, which included fairy tales, folklore, songs and myths, belonged to the poor. The products of each of these cultures were intended for a specific audience, and this tradition was rarely broken. With the advent of mass media (radio, mass mailings, television, the Internet), the distinctions between high and popular culture have been erased. This is how Mass culture, which is associated with regional, religious or class subcultures. Media and popular culture are inextricably linked.
A culture becomes "mass" when its products are standardized and distributed to the general public.
Mass culture, as a rule, has less artistic value than elite or folk culture. But it has the widest audience.
The system of norms and values that distinguish the group from the majority of society, is called subculture.
Subculture is formed under the influence of such factors as social class, ethnic origin, religion and place of residence. The term "subculture" does not mean that this or that group opposes the culture that dominates the society. But sometimes the group actively seeks to develop norms or values that are contrary to the main aspects of the dominant culture. On the basis of such norms and values, counterculture. A well-known counterculture in Western society is bohemianism, and the most striking example in it is the hippies of the 60s.
DEVIATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL
1. The concept of deviation.
2. Theories explaining the deviation
3. Types of deviations
4. Social control
1. The concept of deviation.
deviance determined by the compliance or non-compliance of actions with social expectations. Due to these difficulties, it is likely that the same act can be considered both deviant and non-deviant; moreover, the same act (for example, the challenge thrown by Joan of Arc to the Catholic Church) could be considered a serious crime in the era in which it was committed, and as a great feat, causing the universal admiration of subsequent generations.
Should be considered, that deviation cannot be identified with crime (delinquent behavior), although deviance analysis often focuses on criminal behavior. Crime, or behavior prohibited by criminal law, is a form of deviation.
Deviant (deviant) behavior - an act, human activity or social phenomenon that does not correspond to the officially established or actually established norms in a given society, which entail isolation, treatment, imprisonment or other punishment for the offender.
Based on this definition, one can three major deviation component: Human, which is characterized by a certain behavior; expectation, or the norm, which is a criterion for assessing deviant behavior, and some other person, the group or organization that responds to the behavior.
2. theories explaining the deviation
BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
At the end of the XIX century. italian doctor Cesare Lombroso found a link between criminal behavior and certain physical traits. He believed that people are biologically predisposed to certain types of behavior. He argued that the "criminal type" is the result of degradation to earlier stages of human evolution. This type can be identified by such characteristic features as a protruding lower jaw, a sparse beard and decreased sensitivity to pain. Lombroso's theory became widespread, and some thinkers became his followers - they also established a connection between deviant behavior and certain physical traits of people.
William X. Sheldon(1940), a prominent American psychologist and physician, emphasized the importance of body structure. In humans, a certain body structure means the presence of characteristic personality traits. Endomorph(a person of moderate fullness with a soft and somewhat rounded body) are characterized by sociability, the ability to get along with people and self-indulgence. Mesomorph(whose body is distinguished by strength and harmony) shows a tendency to restlessness, he is active and not too sensitive. And finally ectomorph, characterized by subtlety and fragility of the body, prone to introspection, endowed with increased sensitivity and nervousness.
Based on a study of the behavior of two hundred young men in a rehabilitation center, Sheldon made conclusion, what mesomorphs are most prone to deviation although they do not always become criminals.
Although such biological concepts were popular at the beginning of the 20th century, other concepts gradually supplanted them.
Recently, the biological explanation has focused on abnormalities in the sex chromosomes (XY) of the deviant.. Normally, a woman has two X chromosomes, while a man has one X and one Y chromosome. rarely, XXXY, XXYY, etc.).
PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
The psychological approach, as well as the biological theories discussed above, is often applied to the analysis of criminal behavior. Psychoanalysts have proposed a theory that linked deviant behavior with mental disorders. For example, Freud introduced the concept - "criminals with a sense of guilt"– we are talking about people who want to be caught and punished because they feel guilty because of their “destructive drive”, they are sure that imprisonment would somehow help them overcome this drive. (Freud, 1916-1957). Concerning sexual deviation, then some psychologists believed that exhibitionism, sexual perversion and fetishism were due to an insurmountable fear of castration.
Careful studies have shown that the essence of deviation cannot be explained only on the basis of an analysis of psychological factors. It is more likely that the deviation results from a combination of many social and psychological factors.
SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
The sociological explanation takes into account the social and cultural factors on the basis of which people are considered deviants.
Theory of anomie.
For the first time, a sociological explanation of deviation was proposed in the theory anomie developed Émile Durkheim. Durkheim used this theory in his classic study of the nature of suicide. He considered one of the causes of suicide a phenomenon called anomie(literally "disorder"). Explaining this phenomenon, he emphasized that social rules play an important role in regulating people's lives. However, during crises or radical social changes, life experience ceases to correspond to the ideals embodied in social norms. As a result, people experience a state of confusion and disorientation. To demonstrate the impact of anomie on human behavior, Durkheim showed that during unexpected economic downturns and upswings, suicide rates tend to rise above normal.. Social norms are destroyed, people lose their bearings, and all this contributes to deviant behavior (Durkheim, 1897).
The term " social disorganization"(anomie) refers to the state of society when cultural values, norms and social relationships are absent, weakened or contradict each other.
Merton's anomie theory
Robert K. Merton(1938) made some changes to Durkheim's concept of anomie. He believes that the cause of deviation is the gap between the cultural goals of society and the socially approved means of achieving them. According to Merton, when people strive for financial success but are convinced that it cannot be achieved through socially approved means, they may resort to illegal means, such as racketeering, horse racing or drug dealing. We will return to a discussion of Merton's views on the consequences of anomie later.
CULTURAL EXPLANATIONS
The so-called cultural theories of deviation are essentially similar to those mentioned above, but focus on the analysis of cultural values that favor deviation.
Sellin and Miller believe that deviation occurs when an individual identifies with a subculture whose norms are contrary to the norms of the dominant culture. Edwin Sutherland(1939) argued that delinquency (a form of deviation that interested him in the first place) are trained. People perceive values that contribute to deviation in the course of communication with the bearers of these values. If most of a person's friends and relatives are involved in criminal activities, there is a possibility that he too will become a criminal.
Criminal deviation (delinquency) is the result of predominant communication with carriers of criminal norms. Moreover, Sutherland has carefully described the factors that combine to promote criminal behavior. He emphasized that everyday communication at school, at home or at the place of constant "street parties" plays an important role in this. The frequency of contacts with deviants, as well as their number and duration, affect the intensity of a person's assimilation of deviant values. Age also plays an important role. The younger a person is, the more readily he learns patterns of behavior imposed by others.
Stigma theory(sticking labels or branding) On one's own.
Howard Becker proposed a concept opposite to those discussed above. "Outsiders" (1963).
Conflict approach On one's own.
Austin Turk, Queenie (1977)
Recently, less importance has been attached to biological or psychological factors that "push" people to deviant behavior. The latest theories, especially the "new criminology", emphasize the nature of society and seek to reveal to what extent it is interested in creating and maintaining deviation.
The latest theories are much more critical of the existing social structure, they prove the need to correct not individual people, but the whole society as a whole.
3. TYPES OF DEVIATIONS
The typology of deviant behavior is associated with difficulties, since any of its manifestations - abortion, addiction to alcohol, eating pork, etc. - can be considered both deviant and non-deviant; everything is determined by the regulatory requirements against which they are evaluated. Therefore, there is probably no point in trying to categorize the types of absolutely deviant behavior, although some of them, such as rape and incest, are considered by most people (but not all) to be deviant.
The classification of deviant acts proposed by Merton is the most successful of all developed so far. According to Merton, deviation arises as a result of anomie, a gap between cultural goals and socially approved means to achieve them.
Typology of Merton's Deviation
