21.05.202127.05.2017

Community? In each country, at the regional and global levels, the world political process is unfolding as a joint work of social communities and institutions, enterprises and individuals. The masses, states, social movements and organizations enter the world arena as subjects.

What is the global community: definition

To regulate the relationship between the subjects of different countries, it was founded. In its documents, the term “world community” is used, but before that, from the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th, it was customary to use the concept of “civilized world”. The world community is a complex system of diverse communications at the international level: political, military, economic, financial, informational, etc. The first place among them is occupied by political ones. This is determined by the fact that the entire system as a whole has a political orientation and performs, above all, political activities.

At the same time, it should be noted that all types of connections constantly interact with each other. In addition, there is a planetary political system, which is an independent superstructure over the world community. This system is a global socio-economic structure, it controls the relations of the world community. However, the nature of this system is determined by the nature of the community.

Problems of globalization

Globalization has greatly enlarged and complicated the international system.

To more accurately answer the question of what the world community is, a number of which it solves will help:

1. Environmental pollution. The global community is engaged in solutions to environmental problems that cover virtually all geographical areas of the world.

2. Preservation of the world. The goal is to end the arms race for economic development and the creation of prosperous states.

3. Problems of migration. At present, this problem is especially relevant. Due to the unstable economic situation in many countries, military conflicts, there is a forced mass migration of people.

4. Human rights. The question of strengthening personal and economic freedom is acute.

Scientific and technological revolution

Scientific and technological progress significantly exacerbates the problem of globalization. This requires the adoption of decisions and clear norms in global complicity that would meet cultural values, the moral interests of each person and all of humanity as a whole.

So, we see that the world community is international relations, which is a systemic complex of political, economic, social, diplomatic, legal, military, humanitarian ties and relations among the subjects of the world community.

WORLD COMMUNITY is one of the most used in international politics and at the same time one of the most controversial and ambiguous concepts in science. In a narrow - political (and state-centric), as well as legal - sense, the world community is understood as the unification of states into a universal international organization pursuing the common goals of protecting peace and justice: in other words, in this case, today it means the UN and its institutions. In a broad - sociological - sense, it implies both the existence of joint institutions and rules of conduct for all mankind, and the existence of common interests and values, as well as a planetary pestilence.

The broad interpretation of the world community is characteristic mainly of the British school, communitarianism and other currents in the sociology of international relations. Their starting point is the concept of international society, which is internally connected with the ideas of order and legitimacy in world politics. M. White and X. Bull defined the international order as the regulation of interstate interactions that creates and maintains certain values and norms. It contains three main components, representing the primary goals of the members of the international society. First, the desire of all states for security. Secondly, their interest in the fact that the agreements that are concluded are implemented. Thirdly, their concern for maintaining their sovereignty.

In general, in the scientific literature related to the sociological direction in the study of international relations, there are three main assumptions: 1) international society is considered as a fact of international relations; 2) this fact creates obligations on the part of the members of the international society; 3) the international society is in the process of transition from the society of states to the society of people (ie to the world society) and from the international order to the world. The latter means that as this transition progresses, an international public consciousness, a worldwide sense of community, is being formed.

At the same time, as K. Brown emphasizes, the concept of “world community” is never used in a negative sense: it may not be entirely clear what should or what is meant by it, but it is clear that those who use it are sure that the world could would be better if it could be called by the community. In other words, this concept is characterized by deep internal inconsistency.

Indeed, the concept of "world community" includes both what is due and what is; contains normative and rational, but at the same time value and emotional aspects. It presupposes pluralism and tolerance in relations between states and, at the same time, the spread throughout the world of Western values in origin and cultural basis (market economy, individualism, human rights). Finally, based on the belief in the superiority of liberal principles of goodness and justice, it acts as a basis for imposing these principles through political theories, institutions and actions. As a result, being aimed in its content at achieving stability and a just peace, at eliminating the causes of international conflicts, the concept of a world community simultaneously contributes to their consolidation and spread. The main problem is: who determines the path of mankind's movement towards the world community, forms the norms and rules of behavior for its members, sets their living standards? In other words, ultimately the concept of "world community" reflects the struggle of interests and values of the states and peoples of the Earth.

P.A. Tsygankov

Sociological Dictionary / otv. ed. G.V. Osipov, L.N. Moskvichev. M, 2014, p. 429-430.

Literature:

Shakhnazarov G.Kh. The coming world order. M., 1981;

Gladkov V.P. International about-in: utopia or real perspective // World. economics and international relations. 1989. No. 6;

Moreau Defarge F. Osn. concepts of international politicians. M., 1995;

Burton N.J.W. world society. Cambridge, 1972;

Culture, Ideology and World Order / Ed. by R.B.J. Walker. Boulder 1984;

OnufN.G. World of Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory of International Relations. Columbia, 1989;

Board E. International Society. L., 1991;

Badie B. L "Etat importe, L" occidentalisation de I "ordre Politique. P., 1992.

a term that is used to refer to some hypothetical community of citizens from all countries of the world who are united in a common impulse of internationalism in a united front. This expression is usually used in a condemning context: “the entire world community has condemned the act...”, “the world community is concerned...”, “the world community has put forward demands for a dictatorial regime...”, etc. It is quite clear that there is no in fact, there is no cohesive world community, most states live on their own, trying not to interfere in the internal affairs of other states and not allowing outside intrusions into their internal affairs. Moreover, many states and blocs of states are with each other, if not in open confrontation, then in a state of cold war, which does not allow us to speak of any integrity at all.

From all of the above, it is clear that the expression "world community" is an element of manipulation of public opinion, when under these words a certain point of view is imposed on the recipient of information that is beneficial to the manipulators. After all, if the entire world community has condemned, then how can a simple layman who watches a report about the condemnation not condemn. Naturally, this technology of manipulation is used to put pressure on regimes objectionable to the new world order, as well as to justify various kinds of humanitarian missions in relation to such regimes.

See also: rogue state, humanitarian aid, international terrorism, universal values, progressive humanity, self-determination, religious freedom, social Darwinism, economic blockade.

THE WORLD COMMUNITY AND THE WORLD SYSTEM

Today, the concept of "society" has become even broader than it was mentioned above. Indeed, a society can be understood as a separate country, or- all countries of the world. In this case, we should talk about the world community.

If society is understood in the sequence of two meanings- narrow and wide, then the transition from a single society, considered in the unity of its territorial boundaries (country) and political structure (state), to the world community, or world system, which implies all of humanity as an essential whole, is inevitable.

GLOBAL COMMUNITY

Under the world community understand all the peoples living on our planet. To avoid confusion with society proper, it should be called a quasi-society. Why? The fact is that the eight signs put forward by E. Shils are applicable not only to local, but also to global society. Indeed, the global community is not part of a larger system; marriages are concluded only between members of this association, and it is replenished at the expense of their children; it has its own territory (the whole planet), name, history, administration and culture. The governing body of the world community is the UN. All countries are subordinate to it, it provides humanitarian assistance, protects cultural monuments and sends peacekeeping forces (“blue helmets” of the UN) to almost all corners of the Earth. Today, as part of the world community, regional associations such as the European Community are being formed, which include 12 countries with 345 million people, united by an economic, monetary and political union. The Community has a Council of Ministers and a European Parliament.

The notion of a global or, as they say today, planetary unity of all people did not always exist. It appeared only in the 20th century. World wars, earthquakes, international conflicts made earthlings feel the commonality of their fate, dependence on each other, the feeling that they are all passengers of one ship, the well-being of which depends on each of them. Nothing like this happened in previous centuries. Even 500 years ago it was difficult to say that people living on Earth are united in some kind of single system.

The process of formation of the world system accelerated sharply, especially after the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries (although the beginning was laid earlier), when Europeans became aware of everything, even the most remote corners of the planet. Today we can only talk about geographical remoteness or separate existence of countries and continents. In the social, political and economic sense, the planet is a single space. The main factor in the development of world civilization is the trend towards multiuniformity. Mass media(media) are turning our planet into a "big village". Millions of people become witnesses of events that took place in different places, millions join the same cultural experience (Olympiads, rock concerts). which unifies their tastes. The same consumer goods are everywhere. Migration, temporary work abroad, tourism introduce people to the lifestyle and customs of other countries. When they talk about the world community, they mean the process of globalization, the result of which such a community became. Our world is gradually turning into a global communication system, in which societies break up into separate groups, flowing, depending on changing life priorities, from one social network to another. It is possible that the term “network societies” is more appropriate to describe the new situation, in which there is a continuous exchange of information and which are not closed thanks to global networks within their state borders.

As a result of Russia's accession to the global information community, the main content of social interaction in Russian society is the continuous exchange of information. This proposition was substantiated by A. N. Kacherov1:

♦ Since the breakthrough of information flows to Russia (starting from 1989-1992), there has been a reduction in the number of direct contacts or so-called face-go-face interactions;

♦ increased the number of contacts through means of communication (telephone, fax, computer networks);

♦ there is an exponential growth of "artificial" interaction based on radio and television;

♦ personal contacts between individuals are reduced in number and duration due to the fact that the increased speed of information flows makes people avoid excessive emotional stress and energy expenditure during personal contacts.

Russia's entry into the system of world communications to a certain extent (to a large extent or not, this remains to be seen by sociologists) has changed the traditional way of life, its channels and methods of communication. A modern resident of a large metropolis has at his disposal all the necessary means of communication and is connected to the global network. The more calls it receives or makes on the network, the more it corresponds to the lifestyle adopted in the global information community. The old content of communications - scientific conversations, conversations with friends and lovers, administrative or business negotiations - is clothed today in a new technical form.

Globalization is a historical process of rapprochement of nations and peoples, between which traditional boundaries are gradually being erased, and humanity is turning into a single multidirectional system. Since the middle of the XX century. and especially in recent decades, the trend towards globalization has qualitatively affected society. National and regional histories lose their meaning.

Pre-industrial society was an extremely variegated, heterogeneous mosaic of isolated social units, ranging from hordes, tribes, kingdoms, empires, to the newly emerging nation-state. Each of these units had an independent and self-sufficient economy, its own culture. Post-industrial society is completely different. In political terms, there are supranational entities of various sizes: political and military blocs (NATO), imperial spheres of influence (the former socialist camp), coalitions of ruling groups (the “Big Seven”), continental associations (European Community), world international organizations (UN). The contours of the world government represented by the European Parliament and Interpol are already obvious. The role of regional and world economic agreements is growing. There is a global division of labor, the growing role of multi- and transnational corporations, which often have an income exceeding the income of the average nation-state. Companies such as Toyota, McDonald, Pepsi-Cola or General Motors have lost their national roots and operate all over the world. Financial markets react to events with lightning speed. The tendency towards uniformity becomes dominant in culture. A single or at least generally accepted spoken language is being formed - English. Computer technology carries the same programs all over the world. Western popular culture is becoming universal, and local traditions are being eroded.

Along with the term “world community”, other concepts are widely used in science that are very similar to it, but nevertheless have their own distinctive features: “world system”, “world economic system”, “world empire”, “civilization”.

WORLD SYSTEM

The term "world system" was introduced into scientific circulation by Immanuel Wallerstein 2 . He believed that the usual word "society", borrowed by scientists from everyday practice, is too imprecise: it is almost impossible to separate it in a consistent way from the term "state". Instead of both, he proposed the concept of "historical system", thanks to which, as he believed, two kinds of sciences would finally be reunited - historical (ideographic) and social (nomothetic). The old term "society" separated them, and the new one is designed to unite them. The concept of "historical system" coexists sociological and historical views of the world 3 .

In addition to him, Niklas Luhmann wrote about world society. He defined society through communication and communicative reach. But if this is so, then the only closed system that is not part of another, built on the principles of communication, is only the world society 4 .

Wallerstein and Luhmann are considered the most influential theorists of world society. They place the phenomena of production and reproduction of inequality at the center of their concept 5 . According to Wallerstein, history is not the history of the struggle of classes, but the change of world hegemons: Holland overshadowed Spain, Great Britain defeated Holland, Germany and the USA fought for the British inheritance. In his opinion, Russia was not a true adversary of the US, but rather its partner in maintaining America's economic dominance in its own half of the world, and Russia's in its own. But no hegemony can be eternal, since the cyclical nature of the development of the world economy inevitably leads to the decline of old industries and the creation of new ones, which gives other countries chances for revenge.

According to Wallerstein, there are three forms, or varieties, of "historical systems" - mini-systems, world empires and world economies (although other varieties can be distinguished) 6 . Mini-systems are small structures, short-lived (the life path of about six generations) and homogeneous from a cultural point of view.

World empires are large political structures, culturally they are much more diverse; mode of existence - the collection of tribute from subordinate territories, primarily rural districts, which flows to the center and is redistributed among a small army of officials. World economies are huge unequal chains of integrated production structures, separated by numerous political structures. The logic of their existence is that the surplus value is unevenly distributed in favor of those who were able to seize a temporary monopoly on the market. This is "capitalist" logic.

In that distant era, which we can only judge from archaeological excavations, when gatherers and hunters lived on Earth, mini-systems were the predominant form. At an early stage in history, many social systems existed simultaneously. Since these societies were primarily tribal, many thousands of social systems must be assumed. Later, in connection with the transition to agriculture and the invention of writing, namely in the period between 8000 BC. and 1500 AD, all three types of “historical systems” coexisted simultaneously on earth, but the world empire dominated, which, expanding, destroyed and absorbed both mini-systems and world economies. When world empires collapsed, mini-systems and world economies reappeared on their ruins. History seems to resemble the cycle of substances in nature.

Much of what we call the "history" of this period is the history of the rise and fall of world empires, Wallerstein argues. The world economies at that time were still too weak to compete with the three forms of historical systems.

Around 1500, from the consolidation of disparate world economies that miraculously survived the next invasion of world empires, the "modern world system" was born. Since then “it has reached its full development as a capitalist system. According to its internal logic, this capitalist world economy then expanded and took over the entire globe, all existing mini-systems and world empires. Thus, by the end of the XIX century. for the first time in history, there was only one historical system on Earth. We still exist in this position 8 .

The world system theory, created by Wallerstein in the mid-1970s, makes it possible to explain many historical facts that could not be

explanation by the traditional theory of society. Undoubtedly, the hypothesis of the cyclical emergence and collapse of world empires is very heuristic, among which it is necessary to include our country, which took the form of either tsarist autocracy or the Soviet totalitarian state. From the eternal cycle of historical forms of society follows not only the inevitability of the collapse of social giants and the emergence of social dwarfs, but also the hypothesis of the internal instability of “weakly packed”, loose in terms of specific gravity of a gram of “social substance” per unit area of world empires. Internal cultural heterogeneity did not allow the USSR to exist until the 3rd millennium, despite strict external political control.

All world empires were very unsteady and unstable. What is the empire of the Mongols in the 14th century, which included conquered Russia, if not a heterogeneous and internally contradictory association, where power was held only “on bayonets”?

world empires included several territories united by military and political power. The empires of the Incas, Alexander the Great, Darius I, Napoleon, and finally the USSR, which is also classified as a type of world empire.

were very heterogeneous (culturally, socially, economically, less often religiously), vast in territory, politically unstable formations. They were created forcibly and quickly disintegrated.

Europeans have long practiced transoceanic trade and economics. It was they who became the pioneers of a new form of "historical system" - the world system. The beginning of European hegemony can be traced back to the Crusades - Christian military expeditions undertaken between the 11th and 14th centuries. to retake the "sacred land" from the Muslims. Italian city-states used them to expand trade routes. In the XV century.

Europe established a regular connection with Asia and Africa, and then with America: the discovery of America by Columbus forever connected the Old and New Worlds. Europeans colonized other continents, coming as sailors, missionaries, merchants, officials. Spain and Portugal mined slaves, gold and silver in foreign countries, pushing the natives to remote areas.

With the development of non-European territories, not only the nature of economic ties has changed, but also the whole way of life. If earlier, literally until the middle of the 17th century, the diet of a European was made up of natural products, i.e. what was grown on the continent by rural residents, then in the 18th and 19th centuries. the menu, first of all of the highest class (he is always at the forefront of progress), includes imported products. One of the first overseas goods was sugar. After 1650, not only the upper strata, but also the middle strata, and then the lower strata began to eat it (tobacco came to Europe a century earlier). By 1750, even the poorest English family could drink tea with sugar. From India, where sugar was first obtained by production, the Europeans brought it to the New World. The climate of Brazil and the Caribbean islands created ideal conditions for growing sugar cane. Europeans established plantations here to meet the growing demand for sugar around the world. Sugar demand and supply led to the international market, and with it the slave trade. Cheap labor was needed for the growing plantation economy, and Africa was the labor market. Sugar and cotton became the main subject of international trade, linking continents on opposite sides of the ocean.

In the 17th century There were two trade triangles of trade in sugar and slaves. First, English-made goods were sold in Africa and African slaves were sold in America, while American tropical goods (especially sugar) were sold to England and its neighbors. Secondly, alcoholic beverages from England were delivered by ship to Africa, African slaves to the Caribbean, and molasses (from sugar) to New England for the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. The labor of African slaves increased American wealth, which mostly returned to Europe. Food grown by slaves was consumed in Europe. Coffee, paints, sugar and spices came here from Brazil, cotton and alcohol from the USA.

Gradually, international trade has become the main factor of development. Soon, capitalism began to be defined as an economic orientation to the world market in order to generate income. There was a concept world capitalist economy - a single world system engaged in production for sale and exchange more for the purpose of increasing profits than for the welfare of the people. Now it indicates in which direction to move individual countries. The modern world is a world system based on capitalism, which is why it is called the capitalist world system.

“The unit of analysis of the modern world system is the capitalist world economy,” writes Wallerstein. .

a set of territories or countries united by economic ties. This concept is broader than the world capitalist economy, since it includes countries with capitalist and non-capitalist economies in its orbit, but narrower than the concept of the world system.

The world capitalist economy is the highest and last form of the world economic system. It has existed for almost 500 years, but has never turned into a world empire. Transnational corporations are outside the control of a single government. They freely transfer huge capitals across state borders. The type of world economic systems should also include socialist camp, where in the 1960s-1980s. included the USSR, Cuba, Romania, East Germany, Yugoslavia, Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam. They did not have a single government, each country is a sovereign state. So it's not an empire. But between them there was an international division of labor, cooperation and economic exchange within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.

In a broad sense, the world system includes all the countries that currently exist on the planet.

Analyzing historical views on society, one inevitably notices the following feature: since antiquity, the concept of society has constantly expanded - from the family and the union of tribes to a world power. Today it has grown into a global community.

The ancient Romans, who created the world empire, expanded the concepts of public and social. No longer a union of tribes, but a huge power was to be called Roman society, because both the capital and the distant outskirts were governed by the same laws, the inhabitants adhered to the same laws, traditions and ideals. But is it possible to become a world power. what was the Roman Empire, to build on the model of society? At one time, Plato believed that 5040 families are enough to form a real political society. Aristotle called it excessive. In the XVIII century. Rainal called a society of 20-30 million people monstrous. And what about the modern superpowers (USA, China, Russia) or the ancient Roman Empire, in which Asia and Africa were modestly counted in the provinces?

It is clear that in the superpowers the type of relations between the population and the authorities should be different. The power of the emperor is established from above by himself, therefore it is called autocratic. But in the Greek polis or the Roman Republic, power grew from below - from society. In autocratic states, rulers rule not by the will of the people, but by the grace of God. They are only governors and sit at the top of a huge pyramid of power, which, according to the descending hierarchy of ranks, is very indirectly connected with the population. Is it possible to call such relations between the authorities and the population social ". 1 In the ancient sense of the word, no. Rather, state or political. The state was increasingly moving away from society, which is more related to the population - the lower part of the pyramid.

The ancient Romans could not decide for themselves the question of where society begins and ends. Modern thinkers tried to answer it and introduced a new concept into everyday life - global community.

STRUCTURE OF THE WORLD SYSTEM

As mentioned above, at the global level, society is turning into a world system, which is also called the world community. There are two forms of such a system - world empires (many territories politically united into one state entity) and world economic systems (countries developing a similar economy, but not politically united into one state).

world system should be understood in a narrow and broad sense. Wallerstein proposed to distinguish between: a) world empires; b) world economic systems. world empire includes several territories united by military and political power. These are fragile formations that are vast in territory; they are created forcibly and quickly disintegrate.

World economic system - a set of territories or countries united by economic ties. In ancient times, they practically coincided with world empires or served as their source. What is the empire of the Mongols in the XIV century, which included the conquered Russia, - an empire or an economic system? If many territories are united only by the fact that taxes or tribute are collected from them, then this is an economic system. It does not have a single political center and governing body. And where should the British, Spanish and French colonies in Africa be placed? More like systems than empires.

Wallerstein divided the world system into three parts: core, semi-periphery, periphery.

Core includes the most powerful and powerful states with an improved system of production - the countries of Western Europe, North America, and Japan. They have the most capital, the highest quality goods, the most sophisticated technologies and means of production. These countries export expensive and high-tech products to the periphery and semi-periphery. States semi-peripherals and periphery - These are second and third world countries. They have less power, wealth and influence.

Countries periphery - these are the most backward and poorest states in Africa and Latin America. They are considered a raw material appendage of the core. Minerals are mined, but not processed locally, but exported. Most of the surplus product is appropriated by foreign capital. The local elite invests money outside their state, it enters the service of foreign capital and serves only its interests (even if these people do not go abroad). Political regimes are unstable, revolutions often occur, social and national conflicts constantly arise. The upper class is not separated from the lower by a wide layer of the middle class. The peripheral society is characterized by sharecropping in agriculture and extractive industries. Since the well-being of the countries of the periphery depends on the export of raw materials, technology and capital come only from outside. To a certain extent, the state apparatus is an intermediary of foreign capital. Enclaves of modern technology, imported from abroad and controlled by foreigners, coexist with archaic production methods and massive underemployment. The bureaucratic system monopolizes not only state administration and the function of suppression, but also the direct provision of social privileges, acts as the largest employer, exercises direct control over the main branches of production and (or) exports, control over the media, etc. The exceptionally high degree of exploitation in developing countries often coexists with the spread of repressive regimes, lack of consensus, and often with military dictatorships and semi-official death squads as a day-to-day system of government.

Governments (under dictatorial or authoritarian regimes) exist and are able to more or less intelligently run the country as long as foreign investment comes. But even Western aid often ends up in the pockets of government officials or on their foreign accounts. Such governments are unstable, they continually unleash international conflicts, internal wars and rebellions. This often happens in Latin America, Iran and the Philippines. Even after the revolutions, it does not get easier for them. The new governments turn to repression, show their incompetence, and are soon removed.

The shift by multinational companies of labor-intensive production to countries with cheap labor is a decisive factor in the modern rise of industry in some developing societies. The masses of unskilled workers, the often impoverished "lumpen-bourgeoisie", together with most of the local bourgeoisie, have virtually no influence on the real political life of the country, despite parliamentary procedures, which usually serve only as a means of creating legitimacy 12 . The demographic situation of the Third World countries is characterized by contradictory processes: high birth rates and high infant mortality; migration from overpopulated villages to underdeveloped cities in search of jobs.

Since the 1960s third and fourth world countries borrowed several billion dollars from developed countries. Loans were taken during the economic boom of the West, therefore, at low interest rates, but they have to be repaid in completely different conditions. The total debt to the West exceeded $800 billion, but there is no way in which borrowers could repay their creditors. The largest debtors are Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Venezuela, Nigeria, Peru, Chile and Poland. Trying to keep the economies of these countries afloat, Western lenders are forced to refinance loans. But more often they are faced with partial or complete non-creditworthiness of a particular country. Debt defaults on such a large scale are destroying the international financial system.

Experience has shown that abundant foreign investment in such countries does little to help them out of the crisis. To improve the situation, an internal restructuring of the economy is needed.

In 1998, Russia declared itself uncreditworthy to Western investors. A scandal broke out, and then a world crisis, which the world had not known since the end of World War II. Some Western banks that bought government bonds (GKOs) in Russia went bankrupt or were on the verge of ruin. Russia, which had previously been firmly among the developed economic powers, in essence showed that it belongs to the countries of the “third world”.

If we transfer Wallerstein's classification in terms of D. Bell's theory of post-industrial society, then we get the following ratios:

♦ core - post-industrial societies;

♦ semi-periphery - industrial societies;

♦ periphery - traditional (agrarian) societies.

As already mentioned, the world system evolved gradually. Accordingly, different countries at different times could play the role of leaders in the core, roll back to the periphery or take the place of the semi-periphery.

Usually one state dominates the core. In the XIV century. world trade was dominated by northern Italian city-states. Holland was in the lead in the 17th century, England after 1750, and the United States after 1900. In 1560, the core of the world system was located in Western Europe (England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain). The northern Italian city-states, which had hitherto been the most powerful, joined the semi-periphery. Northeastern Europe and Latin America constituted the periphery. Many societies (especially in Oceania and the interior of Africa and Asia) until recently were outside the periphery. For a long time they could not join the world capitalist economy, producing and consuming their own products, i.e. conducted subsistence farming. Today, there are virtually no such countries. The countries of the former Soviet bloc (Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, etc.) are classified as countries of the "second world". For a long time they were fenced off from the world capitalist system. Now they are classified as periphery or semi-periphery.

The concept of the center-periphery, which has found many adherents among scientists, has received a vivid expression in the recently published book Europe Before History by K. Christi-ansen 13 , and is interpreted in a special way in the articles of the English scientist Andrew Sheratt and the French archaeologist Paul Brun.

The latter distinguishes three concentric zones, due to the influence of the Mediterranean economy in the VIII-VI centuries. BC. The first zone included Greek and Etruscan urban centers - "engines", the action of which determined the formation of a hierarchical system of concentric zones; the second circle was based on the complex of the Celtic civilization; the third covered the northern peripheral cultures, where development was much slower 14 .

CIVILIZATION

Scientists have repeatedly, almost since ancient times, tried to systematize the geopolitical space of the Earth, for example: to divide it not only into countries and continents that exist quite realistically, but also into systems (capitalist and socialist), worlds (“first world”. “ third world, etc.), core and periphery, regions (East Asian region), basins (Pacific Ocean basin), zones of influence (Soviet zone), civilizations (Chinese, Islamic, etc.), whose borders are in no way documents were not fixed, but rather existed as scientific concepts. The traditional way of dividing all countries and peoples into integral, homogeneous zones within themselves is the so-called civilizational approach.

Civilization reflects the global level of human society, which is the integration of social systems. Scientists continue to argue about its content. The concepts of "state" and "country" are narrower in meaning. than "civilization" and "world system". The concept of "society" occupies an intermediate position: it can be very specific and local and abstract and global (all of humanity). Civilizations belong to the type of world, or global, systems. But unlike the world system, civilization reflects the socio-cultural, and not the economic and political aspect of human development.

Scientists have not come to a consensus about what is civilization. Some attribute this concept to historical eras and speak of ancient, medieval and modern civilizations. Others relate this concept to a geographical place, meaning local, regional and global civilizations. Still others rely on religious and socio-cultural criteria and analyze the Eurasian, Muslim, Christian, Eastern, European, Western and other civilizations. Sometimes culture is understood not as a synonym for civilization, i.e. something equal to it, but as its aspect, part, side. Therefore, they speak of culture as a symbolic code of civilization, whether materialized (in books, monuments, etc.) or non-materialized (norms, etiquette, knowledge).

Ancient China, Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt, Babylonia, medieval Europe and Russia belong to the same historical type of society - to the traditional one. Undoubtedly, each country had its own culture, unlike the others. Within the framework of a traditional society, there is a variety of civilizations - ancient, medieval, Christian, eastern, ancient Egyptian, Eurasian.

Civilization is also understood as a degree of cultural development, which far from all countries have reached. There are many indicators of civilization: the death rate (especially for children), the sanitary condition of cities, the environment, and so on. Historically, the most important indicator is the presence of writing: although all cultures use a language, not all of them have a written language. Note an interesting detail: the word "civilization" comes from the Latin civilis- civil, state - and in the Middle Ages had a legal meaning - "related to judicial practice." Later, its meaning expanded. “Civilized” began to be called a person who knows how to behave well, and “civilize” meant to make well-bred and polite, sociable and amiable. It was possible to civilize barbarian tribes or lower classes, for example, peasants. In secular society, "civility" meant courtesy. In one of the most authoritative publications - R. Williams' book "Key words: a dictionary of culture and society" it is said that culture was a kind of alternative to "civilization", which was associated with social progress. The concept of "culture" embodied the idea of national and traditional cultures, the whole complex of phenomena that we usually associate with folk culture 15 . Russian ethnographers, in particular Yu.I. Semenov, believe that signs of the transition to civilization are: in the field of material culture - the appearance of monumental stone or brick buildings (palaces, temples, etc.), in the field of spiritual culture - the emergence of writing. Both monumental architecture and writing are a vivid manifestation of the culture of the "upper", or elite culture 16 .

For anthropologists, civilization is just a more complex or higher type of culture. And if you follow the etymology of the word, it turns out that civilization is the culture of people living in cities. Citizens have a complex way of life and a written language. Anthropologists, unlike sociologists, did not make any other distinction between culture and civilization. “Civilization” is the totality of “means” created by man, and “culture” is the totality of all human “goals”.

What is civilization then? How does it differ from the other two fundamental concepts - society and culture? When we talk about society, we remember the social structure, social institutions, social stratification. And culture means the environment of society - norms, laws, manners, etiquette, customs, traditions, etc.

What is left for civilization? What important aspects of human life does this concept cover? What distinguishes, for example, eastern civilization from the western one? Most likely, understanding the meaning of life, justice, destiny, place of work and leisure, etc. Both civilizations are based on different systems of social values, philosophy, lifestyle and principles, attitude towards nature. This is primary, and their embodiment - in the types of housing, lifestyle, ways of communication - is secondary. The understanding of civilization should, apparently, include the attitude towards progress, rational science and technology, and the interpretation of human nature.

In the palette of very different approaches, sometimes very contradictory, two central ones can be distinguished. Most specialists prefer to consider civilization in two senses - as a historical (time) and geographical (place) formation.

From the 19th century until the beginning of the 20th, the term "enlightened world" was used. Now, instead of it, the concept of "world community', because he was considered more politically correct.

World community- this is some hypothetical community of citizens of all countries of the world, united in a single front in a general outburst of internationalism. Representation of the "world community” is intended to reflect the commonality of goals and activities of states coexisting in the world in the face of the global snags of civilization. The basis of the world community is the rule of sovereign equality of all states. An example of the world community is the United Nations (UN). The phrase "world community» is often used in works on political science, by statesmen in their speeches and in the media. It is used to manipulate social judgment. This happens when, under the definition of "world community» a certain point of view is stuffed to the recipient of information. Depending on the context, it can be used as a reference to international organizations that bring together almost all the countries of the world, say, UNESCO. This representation is also used to indicate a group of countries united by political, economic, social and other signs. Often the "global community"is used as a grandiloquent technique to oppose one state and its policies to another or a group of other countries. Members of the world community can be states, social unions, constructions, groups and religious associations, movements, economic and military unions. Relations between members of the world community constitute a system of international relations, and they are their subjects. At the current time, the world community owns a multi-component structure, which includes a lot of diverse territorial associations. At the same time, a system of various ties between individual states and territorial entities is being formed and expanded.

UN is the abbreviation for the United Nations, established in the year the 2nd World War ended. 1945 was the beginning of the unification of many peacekeeping organizations into one, with headquarters in the United States, New York City.

Instruction

1. Before the advent of the UN, there were organizations in Europe, North America, and Russia that promoted interstate union for the benefit of every society. Such a postulate was made, in particular, by the League of Nations and the diplomatic cultural entity "Concert of Europe". However, World War II required the emergence of a more weighty and serious structure. And at the beginning of 1945, the major powers of the world, such as the USSR, the USA, China, Great Britain and France, at a conference in San Francisco signed an agreement on the establishment of the United Nations. Within six months, another 45 states joined the UN, later Poland joined them.

2. Today, the United Nations has about 200 members, including such exotic countries as the Solomon Islands, Micronesia, Guinea-Bissau, Antigua and Barbados. A state can become a new member of the UN only if it is ready to establish diplomatic relations and promote peacefulness. The members of the Council are also required to vote for the candidate, with a total of at least nine positive votes out of fifteen. The decisive word belongs to the United States, Russia, China, France and Great Britain, the founding countries of the UN.

3. The United Nations is composed of six structural divisions. This is the UN General Assembly, which discusses issues related to the maintenance of global peace and security at annual meetings in the presence of attorneys from 193 participating countries. The UN also includes the Security Council, the Economic Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat. Of all the subdivisions, only the Security Council has the right to make certain decisions concerning the maintenance of peace, up to and including calling on the participating countries for collective peacekeeping measures. Resolutions of all other divisions of the UN are advisory in nature.

4. On the territory of the Soviet Union, the first institution that belonged to the UN department, the preface to work three years after the creation of the United Nations. In 1948, the Information Center opened in Moscow, and later fourteen more structures joined it. Today, UN agencies in Russia determine the tactical formation of state programs aimed at maintaining the economic development, the health of the country's population, as well as control over the demographic situation and the environment.

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It is repeatedly allowed to hear that this or that object of cultural heritage is under the protection of UNESCO. The same organization patronizes various socially important events. What is UNESCO and what tasks does it set for itself?

UNESCO (UNESCO) is an abbreviation for the full name of this organization in English: United Nations Educational, Science, Cultural Organization (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. It consists of 195 states and 7 working members (territories with unrecognized sovereignty).With some 60 UNESCO bodies operating worldwide and headquartered in Paris.UNESCO is led by a Director-General who is elected for a four-year term.In 2009, Irina Bokova (Bulgaria's attorney) was appointed to this post. The history of the organization dates back to the 40s of the last century.In 1942, the allied countries discussed the prospects for improving the systems of education and cultural development, which were supposed to be concluded at the conclusion of World War 2. The conclusion of the negotiations was the signing of the Charter of UNESCO on November 16, 1945 and the creation of a preparatory commission. The first meetings of the UNESCO General Assembly took place in Par below in 1946. The purpose of UNESCO is to strengthen peace and establish common security by increasing the availability and quality of education everywhere, establishing a dialogue of civilizations, preserving the cultural heritage of all nationalities, ensuring equality for all inhabitants of the Earth, regardless of gender and race, language and religion. UNESCO also sees its mission in the victory over poverty and hunger, the eradication of interethnic strife, the preservation of the Earth's biosphere and the maintenance of the microclimate. From the first years of its existence, UNESCO has been actively engaged in the snags of education and science. Today, one of the main goals of the organization is the dissemination of modern communication tools to unite the global society. In particular, UNESCO has been supporting the Free Software Foundation for a long time. Nowadays, UNESCO sets itself a lot of tasks, highlighting the task of African countries and the topic of gender equality as priorities.

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Political science is the science of politics. Politics plays a huge role in the life of society; it permeates all spheres of social life. The formation of political universities of power ensures the typical functioning of society, streamlines the relationship between society and the state, as well as between the peoples of different countries.

Instruction

1. The word "political science" is of Greek origin, the literal translation is politicos - "social, state", politis - "citizen" and logos - "learning, science". Political science- a system of skills about politics, the doctrine of government.

2. The political system of society is represented by many spheres of life, including economic, social, spiritual, legal, etc. Political science as science combines the comprehension of all spheres, it is a comprehensive broad doctrine of the political system of society in the aggregate.

3. The political system of society consists of four closely interconnected parts: institutional, regulatory, communicative and ideological. The institutional direction of political science comprehends political universities and is dominant in science. This subsystem plays the main role, because the subject of comprehension are the forms of political government, political regimes, authorities, parties and other political movements, electoral bodies, etc.

4. The basis of the regulatory direction of political science is the political and legal norms that power in a particular country relies on, in addition, it includes national traditions and customs, accepted beliefs and theses, which are followed by a huge part of society.

5. The communicative direction of political science comprehends the relationship between political universities and citizens of the country. The object of comprehension of the ideological direction is political views, doctrines that underlie the creation and subsequent formation of subjects of 3 other areas of political science (universities of power, political organizations, legislative and legal norms, electoral strategy, etc.).

6. Political scientists are guided by a huge number of accepted methods for finding political processes and the relationship of political bodies with the citizens of the state. These methods are diverse, however, they can be divided into three main groups.

7. General logical methods are borrowed from related sciences such as philosophy and sociology. These methods are auxiliary for political scientists: review and synthesis, induction and deduction, systematization, abstraction, etc.

8. Empirical methods of political science are associated with research and review of real political facts. These are, first of all, statistical methods, as well as conducting surveys of the population, acquiring expert opinions, etc.

9. Methodological methods represent a community of different methods for acquiring an assessment of the importance of existing political phenomena for society, detecting dependencies between different spheres of its life (economic, social, cultural) and their power on politics. Methodological methods include the following approaches: sociological, behavioral, normative-value, anthropological, psychological, comparative, etc.

10. Politics is relevant to any member of society, from the fact that every citizen of the country plays a certain role in the formation of political views and trends. Political science comprehends both a separate figure (subject) and a group of individuals, society, the state, as well as the ability of one person or a group of people (power) to manage the state, control the behavior of society in the aggregate, following national goals.

Domestic state policy is aimed mainly at solving those problems that affect aspects of the life of the population of certain regions. Most of the people are disunited, consequently the state is faced with the issue of using territorial policy.

Territorial policy is an integral component of the internal policy of the state, which is aimed at leveling the tier of life on average across regions with the help of a complex of various economic, legislative and fiscal measures. Territorial policy implies a reasonable administrative-regional division, as well as its comprehension with the whole conduct of a competent domestic policy. With the help of legislative and economic levers, the state, by building a vertical ladder of communication between subjects and the center, can quickly and comprehensively solve not only snags within the regions, but also allows it to become an arbiter in resolving conflict situations between different subjects of the country. Territorial policy has several directions, including: - identification of underdeveloped regions and subjects of the country; - stimulation of the formation of regions in need; - subsidies and other economic injections into the economies of regions in need; - allocation of regions - recipients and regions - donors. Territorial policy includes a number of elements that are designed to influence the life of regions in aggregate: - Fiscal policy - a commonality of means and methods for organizing tax collection by regions and subjects of the country; - Budget policy - a particularly reasonable division of budget funds for injecting them into the regions; - Pricing policy - setting prices and tariffs in different territories theories of the country; - Public policy - pursuing a policy to support citizens in various subjects of the state. In particular, one of the main tasks of territorial policy is the formation of the national economy by stimulating the development of entrepreneurship and industry in the regions. The allocation of donor regions and recipient regions allows the state to more competently “pump out” free funds from wealthy regions and inject them into the “poor” regions.

The union, along with the particle and the preposition, refers to the official parts of speech in the morphological system of the Russian language. The name of the term indicates its function - to be a means of communication, "lead to the union" of various syntactic constructions (homogeneous members and primitive sentences in the composition of a difficult one) and independent sentences in the text. In addition, the union expresses the relationship between these syntactic constructions.

You will need

– linguistic dictionary;
- a textbook on the Russian language.

Instruction

1. How to determine the union Find a number of homogeneous members in a simple sentence. Establish a connection between them. Please note that only coordinating conjunctions are used in this construction. In the sentence “Frightened clouds swirled, pushed and ran into the distance”, the homogeneous predicates “pushed and ran” are connected by a coordinative connection using the union “and”. Find the boundaries of primitive sentences in the difficult one. Establish a connection between them. In the compound sentence “The room became narrow, and the rooms were too visible,” two primitive sentences are associated with the support of the “yes” union. Find grammatical means of connection between independent sentences in the text. Often one of them is a coordinating union: “The blizzard subsided. And at once the snowdrifts settled, the snow darkened.

2. Remember that the union, like any part of speech, has certain morphological signs. According to the morphological structure, unions are non-derivative (primitive) and derivative. The first group consists of unions that are indivisible and not correlated with independent parts of speech: and, but, or, or, etc. In another group, unions that are word-formatively associated with remarkable words: because, so that, true, etc. By structure, unions are divided into primitive ones, consisting of one word (like, yes, if), and combined ones - consisting of several words (so how, despite the fact that, not only ... but also). According to the options for use, unions are single (but, however, the same), repeating (that ... that; or ... or; and ... and), double (although ... but; just…how; if…then).

3. A particularly revealing function of the union is its ability to express semantic relationships in a sentence. If there is an equal connection, determine the coordinating conjunctions (connective, disjunctive and adversative). If there are relations of subordination of the subordinate clause to the main one, define subordinating conjunctions. Among them are given: explanatory (what, in order, how); comparative (as if, as if, true); concessive (though, despite the fact that); conditional (if); temporary (as soon as, later as); causal (since, because); target (after this in order, in order to in order).

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Helpful advice
Unions, which are service parts of speech, and allied words expressed by independent parts of speech (pronouns and adverbs) should not be confused. When distinguishing, use the technique of posing a grammatical question and determining the syntactic role. Let's say: "I said I'm going to the movies." The word "what"? this is a union, because it is impossible to put a question to him, he is also not a member of the proposal. "The house that stood on the guard of the river was visible from afar." The allied word “what” is expressed by a relative pronoun, because a question is asked to him (what?), points to the word "house" and in the subordinate clause is the subject.

The political system of any modern state is quite difficult. It includes not only various tiers of legislative, executive and judicial power, but also a wide range of political organizations. Parties and social movements play a significant role in the life of the state.

The place of political organizations in social life

In democratic states, political organizations have a significant impact on the implementation of foreign and domestic policy. Their action is aimed at especially complete satisfaction of the interests of the most diverse social groups, which differ in their composition and political views. Political organizations and movements are traditionally built on a professional, ethnic or class basis. A political organization, in essence, is a mass association of people on a voluntary basis, which has its own personal goals expressed in constituent and program documents. Such organizations are built to solve not only economic but also political problems. The main one is participation in the struggle for representation in government. Any political party can be cited as an example. Being a full-fledged subject of the political process, such social associations of citizens differ from other types of organizations in that they tend to gain access to power. Political work includes agitation among the general population, popularization of the ideas of the movement and stretching the sphere of power. Organizations of a political orientation express and protect the interests of a certain social group.

Political Party

A political party is distinguished from other types of similar organizations by a traditionally rough hierarchy between different tiers, which is necessary for increasing the manageability of each system and well-coordinated work. The indispensable components of the party are the core, the control unit, control bodies, energetic members of the organization and a significant number of sympathetic elements. Only a high degree of organization allows a political party to succeed in the struggle for power. Parties and other political organizations conduct their activities counting on a sensation in the political struggle. To do this, they are zealous to enlist the help of not only a certain social stratum, but also more of the broad masses of the population. In their activities, parties are repeatedly forced to enter into temporary alliances with other movements and organizations that have similar goals. As usual, a political party has official membership and relatively strict rules and regulations enshrined in the charter of the organization. By joining the ranks of such a political association, the newest member assumes certain responsibilities and receives the right to participate in the work of the party, in the joint development of decisions and in the events held by the party. For many citizens, active participation in the political life of the country begins with an introduction to a party whose goals and objectives correspond to their inner convictions.

Many have heard the term "sovereign" 1000 times in their lives during each study, both at school and at the institute. However, few people fully understand its true meaning in relation to such a political university as the state.

History of occurrence

In order to realize what the current state is now, it is necessary to remember before everyone how things were before with this. Now in the world there are about 200 sovereign states legally fixed and recognized by the international United Nations. But at the end of the 19th century there were none, but there were only plots of land with an approximate border and territory belonging to one or another state. Many lands did not belong to anyone, were empty or were inhabited by nomads. The states that existed at that time became the basis and prerequisite for the origin of current, modern sovereign states. However, in modern conditions there are also territories that are now uninhabited or only partly populated. There are even territories where a radical population lives, completely isolated from civilization and all public universities.

sovereign state now

Despite the fact that the hallmark of a sovereign state is its isolation and independence, this does not mean at all that it does not consider the interests of other states in its activities and does not cooperate with them both in political and market, as well as public issues. The interaction of all sovereign states is based on the rule of international law, which establishes certain theses, rules and laws that are integral for all. At the same time, no one has the right to interfere in the affairs of a sovereign state without her permission. In order for the current state to be considered sovereign, it must be recognized as such, and this recognition does not invariably indicate the desire of the recognized state to establish diplomatic relations with it. Despite the fact that many sovereign states in modern conditions are both de jure and de facto, individual representatives have sovereignty in their country only on paper, that is, de jure they are sovereign, but in fact they do not have control over their territory . As a brilliant example of such a story, it is permissible to cite the Order of Malta. At the same time, the opposite situation may also arise, when the territory belongs to the state, and it does not support international relations with any other state. The main goal of all sovereign states is now the legal representation of their citizens, control over the observance of their rights and wills. In a sovereign state, the primacy belongs to the authorities, to which the people trust all issues related to their own rights.

Globalization is the transformation of a phenomenon from the scale of one country into a global phenomenon. That is, what once concerned one state or some of its territory, in the process of globalization begins to affect directly or implicitly all the inhabitants of the Earth.

The core result of globalization is the distribution of labor on the international level, the widespread migration of human and production sources, the international standardization of technical and economic processes, as well as the mutual penetration of cultures of different states. Globalization covers all spheres of social life, and as a result the world becomes more dependent on its individual parts. However, the process of globalization can be traced exceptionally clearly in the economy - world markets are being formed, integration of various areas of the world economy is taking place. At the end of the last century, world integration reached a special rapid pace, which was facilitated by the fall of the Iron Curtain and the collapse of the USSR, as well as the vigorous inclusion of China in the world economy and the global strong development of information special technologies. The phenomenon of globalization has both positive and negative outcomes. Moreover, different specialists, scientists, politicians usually interpret the same results of globalization in different ways. So, apparently, as a result of globalization, an integral transnational economic system is being formed, and interstate borders are becoming less and less important today with the whole decade. This is evidenced by the increasing rate of migration of the peoples of different countries on each planet. This will allowably lead to the formation of the so-called "sociomonolith" - indivisible according to national, political, religious and other signs of society. Some consider this an excellent inclination, others advocate the preservation of individual cultures and economies in any given country. At the same time, apparently, the formation of an indivisible holistic society is an inevitable consequence of the globalization process, one that is gaining more and more rapid cycles these days. And a particularly correct result of such a comprehensive unification of the world can be the solution of one of the most serious tasks on a planetary scale, which has not left our planet for thousands of years - the danger of interethnic wars and armed clashes. There is a social and political movement of opponents of globalization - anti-globalists. Its members often become prominent scientists, economists, social figures and other public figures who criticize the process of global economic, political and cultural integration into the whole world community.

Tip 10: How to choose a community for advertising VKontakte

Instruction

2. Keep a close eye on coverage. It is desirable that the price of one advertising post is no more than 50 kopecks for every 100 coverage of subscribers.

3. Be rigorous about where your visitors come from. If from external sites - treat such a group with doubt, it is permissible that it contains many bots.

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In science, for a long time there has been a discussion of such a main and serious snag as a population explosion. Scientists are seriously concerned about its consequences. There is a debate in society about the probabilities of eliminating its causes and outcomes.

A population explosion is a sharp surge in population growth. This process occurs mainly due to a decrease in mortality and an increase in the birth rate in the progressive countries of the world. At the end of the XVII century. The growth rate of the world's population has actually doubled, which was due to a number of factors. Firstly, it is connected with the formation of industry. Secondly, the population explosion is due to socio-economic changes that allowed women to work on an equal basis with men. Thirdly, the mortality tier has dropped sharply. At the current time, the number of our planet is approximately 7 billion people, each year the arrival is from 80 to 85 million people. The population explosion has several features: the metamorphosis of the population leads to an increase in unemployment, as well as to a change in many socio-economic relations. Moreover, this applies not only to progressive countries, but also to every world community, becoming one of the global snags of our time. Now the population explosion is virtually unnoticeable, the population growth rate is much lower compared to the 1960s, which were distinguished by the highest rates, but However, the danger of overpopulation remains. This applies exclusively to African countries (such as Nigeria, Angola and others), where demographic growth is very high to this day. In addition, in some countries, say in China, formidable measures had to be resorted to. Families with one child enjoy different benefits, and husbands with 2 or more children are required to pay a fine, the size of which depends on income and place of residence. One snag was the reluctance of many residents to take family planning seriously. This is largely due to the world's religions, which adhere to a conservative position regarding children. The results of the population explosion can be horrifying: the regression of the world economy, poverty, hunger and the depletion of all sources of the planet available to society.