Thinking operating with concepts and categories. Thinking and its types

Thinking - it is a mental cognitive process of generalized and indirect reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world in their essential connections and manifestations.

Mental cognitive process reflecting the essential connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of the objective world is called thinking. Thinking is mediated, i.e. relies on sensations and perceptions, on the data of past experience stored in memory. Thinking is connected with speech, because the reflection of connections and relations between phenomena occurs in verbal form. It is also related to practical activities.

Thinking is higher cognitive process. In the process of thinking, a person reflects the objective world differently than in the processes of perception and imagination. In perceptions and representations, external phenomena are reflected in the way they affect the sense organs: in colors, shapes, movement of objects, etc. When a person thinks about any objects or phenomena, he reflects in his mind not these external features, but the very essence of objects, their mutual connections and relationships.

Thinking process:

Always has an indirect character;

It relies on the knowledge that a person has about the general laws of nature and society;

It proceeds from "living contemplation", but is not reduced to it;

Reflects the connections and relationships between objects in verbal form;

It is always in inseparable unity with speech;

Organically connected with practical activity.

The most important feature thinking is that thinking is always associated with the decision of one or another tasks, arising in the process of cognition or practical activity. Therefore, thinking always starts with question, the answer to which is purpose.

Thinking is a special kind of activity that has its own structure and types:

The main types of mental operations include: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, concretization.

Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis - it is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking.

Comparison - This is an operation that consists in comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relations with each other and thus identifying the commonality or difference between them.

abstraction- a mental operation based on abstraction from non-essential features of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them.

Generalization- this is a combination of many objects or phenomena according to some common feature.

Specification - it is the movement of thought from the general to the particular.

Basic forms of thinking: concept, judgment and conclusion.

concept- this is a reflection in the mind of a person of the general and essential properties of an object or phenomenon. Concepts are based on knowledge about these objects or phenomena. Concepts can be general and singular, concrete and abstract.

Judgment- the main form of thinking, in the process of which the connections between objects and phenomena of reality are affirmed or reflected. It allows you to verbally attribute objects or phenomena to a particular class.

inference- this is the selection of one or more judgments of a new judgment. In some cases, the inference determines the truth or falsity of judgments. There are inferences inductive, deductive, Similarly.

By type, thinking is divided into visual-effective, visual-figurative, abstract-logical (abstract).

Visual Action Thinking is thinking directly involved in activity. (Playing Rubik's Cube is an example of visual-effective thinking. Visual-effective thinking is thinking based on the direct perception of objects in the process of acting with them. In this example, it occurs in a step-by-step mode, when the current goal is determined only by the criteria for successful completion this step, and is also characterized by the absence of a completed action plan.).

Visual-figurative thinking- this is thinking, carried out on the basis of images, ideas of what a person perceived before.

abstract thinking- this is thinking that takes place on the basis of abstract concepts that are not figuratively represented.

From a physiological point of view the process of thinking is a complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex. The entire cerebral cortex is involved in the implementation of thought processes.

When making decisions in the course of thinking, certain functional systems are formed that provide different levels of decision-making and the presence of potentials evoked for them - certain reactions of different areas of the cerebral cortex to a specific external event, which are comparable to the real psychological process of information processing. The activity of the functional systems of the psyche, the presence of specific levels of decision-making and the manifestation of certain evoked potentials in general act as psychophysiological mechanisms of mental activity.

According to S.L. Rubinstein, every thought process is an act aimed at solving a specific problem, the formulation of which includes a goal and conditions. Thinking begins with a problem situation, a need to understand. At the same time, the solution of the problem is a natural completion of the thought process, and its termination when the goal is not achieved will be perceived by the subject as a breakdown or failure. The emotional well-being of the subject, tense at the beginning and satisfied at the end, is connected with the dynamics of the thought process.

Initial phase thought process is the awareness of the problem situation. The very formulation of the problem is an act of thinking, often it requires a lot of mental work.

The first sign of a thinking person- the ability to see the problem where it is. The emergence of questions (which is typical in children) is a sign of the developing work of thought. A person sees the more problems, the larger the circle of his knowledge. Thus, thinking presupposes the presence of some initial knowledge.

From understanding the problem thought moves to its solution. The problem is solved in different ways. There are special tasks (tasks of visual-effective and sensory-motor intelligence), for the solution of which it is enough to correlate the initial data in a new way and rethink the situation.

In most cases To solve problems, some base of theoretical generalized knowledge is needed. The solution of the problem involves the involvement of existing knowledge as means and methods of solution.

The application of the rule involves two mental operations:

Determine which rule to use for the solution;

Application of the general rule to particular conditions of the problem.

Automated schemes actions can be considered skills of thinking. It is important to note that the role of thinking skills is great precisely in those areas where there is a very generalized system of knowledge, for example, in solving mathematical problems.

When deciding a complex problem, a solution path is usually outlined, which is recognized as a hypothesis. Awareness of the hypothesis generates the need for verification.

criticality- a sign of a mature mind. An uncritical mind easily takes any coincidence as an explanation, the first solution that comes up as the final one.

When does verification end?, the thought process proceeds to the final phase - judgment on the matter.

Thus, the thought process is a process that is preceded by awareness of the initial situation (conditions of the task), which is conscious and purposeful, operates with concepts and images, and which ends with some result (rethinking the situation, finding a solution, forming a judgment, etc.).

Thinking activity is realized both at the level of consciousness and at the level of the unconscious, it is characterized by complex transitions and interactions of these levels. As a result of a successful (purposeful) action, a result is achieved that corresponds to the previously set goal, and the result that was not provided for in the conscious goal is a by-product (by-product of the action) in relation to it.

The problem of the conscious and the unconscious was concretized into the problem of the relationship between direct (conscious) and side (unconscious) products of action. The by-product of an action is also reflected by the subject. This reflection can participate in the subsequent regulation of actions, but it is not presented in a verbalized form, in the form of consciousness. A by-product "is formed under the influence of those specific properties of things and phenomena that are included in the action, but are not essential from the point of view of the goal."

Speech

speech The process of a person's practical use of language in order to communicate with other people is called.

Unlike speech, language- this is a system of conditional symbols, with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people. In the process of communication, people express thoughts and feelings with the help of language, achieve mutual understanding in order to carry out joint activities.

Language and speech, like thinking, arise and develop in the process and under the influence of labor. They are the property of only man: animals have neither language nor speech.

Speech has its own content. The sounds that make up the words of oral speech have a complex physical structure; they distinguish the frequency, amplitude and shape of the vibration of air sound waves.

Of special importance in the sounds of speech is their timbre, which is based on overtones that accompany and complement the main tone of the speech sound.

Speech has its own properties:

- content of speech is determined by the number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in it, their significance and correspondence to reality;

- intelligibility of speech is achieved by syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as the use of pauses in appropriate places or highlighting words with the help of logical stress;

- expressiveness of speech associated with its emotional richness (by its expressiveness, it can be bright, energetic or, conversely, lethargic, pale);

- lack of speech lies in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior.

Speech performs certain functions:

- expressions(consists in the fact that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expands the possibilities of communication);

- impact( lies in the ability of a person through speech to induce people to action);

- designations(consists in the ability of a person through speech to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality their names inherent only to them);

- messages(consists in the exchange of thoughts between people through words, phrases).

There are the following types of speech:

- oral- this is communication between people through the pronunciation of words, on the one hand, and their perception by people by ear, on the other;

- written- it is speech through written signs;

- monologue- this is the speech of one person, for a relatively long time expressing his thoughts;

- dialogic- a conversation in which at least two interlocutors participate;

- external- speech, which performs the functions of communication;

- internal- this is speech that does not perform the function of communication, but only serves the process of thinking of a particular person;

Systems that provide speech can be divided into two groups: peripheral and central. The central ones include certain structures of the head movement of the brain, and the peripheral ones include the vocal apparatus and hearing organs. Speech is based on the activity of the second signal system, the work of which is, first of all, in the analysis and synthesis of generalized speech signals.

speech at the same time- the most complex system conditioned reflexes. It is based on the second signaling system, the conditioned stimuli of which are words in their sound (oral speech) or visual form. The sounds and outlines of words, being at first neutral stimuli for an individual, become conditioned speech stimuli in the process of re-combining them with the primary signal stimulus, causing perceptions and sensations of objects and their properties.

As a result, they get semantic meaning, become signals of direct stimuli with which they were combined. The temporary neural connections formed in this case are further strengthened by constant verbal reinforcements, become strong and acquire a two-sided character: the sight of an object immediately evokes a reaction of its naming, and, conversely, an audible or visible word immediately evokes the representation of the object denoted by this word.

The information received by a person from the surrounding world allows a person to represent not only the external, but also the internal side of an object, to represent objects in the absence of themselves, to foresee their change in time, to rush with thought into boundless distances and the microcosm. All this is possible through the process of thinking. In under thinking understand the process of cognitive activity of an individual, characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality. Objects and phenomena of reality have such properties and relationships that can be known directly, with the help of sensations and perceptions (colors, sounds, shapes, placement and movement of bodies in visible space).

The first feature of thinking- its mediated nature. What a person cannot cognize directly, directly, he cognizes indirectly, indirectly: some properties through others, the unknown through the known. Thinking is always based on the data of sensory experience - representations - and on previously acquired theoretical knowledge. Indirect knowledge is also indirect knowledge.

The second feature of thinking- its generalization. Generalization as knowledge of the general and essential in the objects of reality is possible because all the properties of these objects are connected with each other. The general exists and manifests itself only in the individual, in the concrete.

People express generalizations through speech, language. Verbal designation refers not only to a single object, but also to a whole group of similar objects. Generalization is also inherent in images (representations and even perceptions). But there it is always limited visibility. The word allows you to generalize without limit. Philosophical concepts of matter, motion, law, essence, phenomenon, quality, quantity, etc. - the broadest generalizations expressed in a word.

The results of people's cognitive activity are recorded in the form of concepts. A concept is a reflection of the essential features of an object. The concept of an object arises on the basis of many judgments and conclusions about it. The concept as a result of the generalization of people's experience is the highest product of the brain, the highest stage of cognition of the world.

Human thinking proceeds in the form of judgments and conclusions.. Judgment is a form of thinking that reflects the objects of reality in their connections and relationships. Each judgment is a separate thought about something. A consistent logical connection of several judgments, necessary in order to solve any mental problem, to understand something, to find an answer to a question, is called reasoning. Reasoning has practical meaning only when it leads to a certain conclusion, a conclusion. The conclusion will be the answer to the question, the result of the search for thought.

inference- this is a conclusion from several judgments, giving us new knowledge about the objects and phenomena of the objective world. Inferences are inductive, deductive and by analogy.

Thinking is the highest level of human cognition of reality. Sensual basis of thinking are sensations, perceptions and representations. Through the sense organs - these are the only channels of communication between the body and the outside world - information enters the brain. The content of information is processed by the brain. The most complex (logical) form of information processing is the activity of thinking. Solving the mental tasks that life puts before a person, he reflects, draws conclusions and thereby cognizes the essence of things and phenomena, discovers the laws of their connection, and then transforms the world on this basis.

Thinking is not only closely connected with sensations and perceptions, but it is formed on the basis of them. The transition from sensation to thought is a complex process, which consists, first of all, in the selection and isolation of an object or its attribute, in abstraction from the concrete, individual and the establishment of the essential, common to many objects.

Thinking acts mainly as a solution to problems, questions, problems that are constantly put forward before people by life. Solving problems should always give a person something new, new knowledge. The search for solutions is sometimes very difficult, so mental activity, as a rule, is an active activity that requires focused attention and patience. The real process of thought is always a process not only cognitive, but also emotional-volitional.

For human thinking, the relationship is not with sensory cognition, but with speech and language. In a stricter sense speech- the process of communication mediated by language. If language is an objective, historically established system of codes and the subject of a special science - linguistics, then speech is a psychological process of formulating and transmitting thoughts by means of language.

Modern psychology does not believe that inner speech has the same structure and the same functions as extended outer speech. By internal speech, psychology means an essential transitional stage between the idea and expanded external speech. A mechanism that allows you to recode the general meaning into a speech statement, i.e. inner speech is, first of all, not an extended speech statement, but only preparatory stage.

However, the inseparable connection between thinking and speech does not at all mean that thinking can be reduced to speech. Thinking and speaking are not the same thing. Thinking does not mean talking about yourself. Evidence of this is the possibility of expressing the same thought in different words, as well as the fact that we do not always find the right words to express our thought.

The objective material form of thinking is language. A thought becomes a thought both for oneself and for others only through the word—oral and written. Thanks to the language, people's thoughts are not lost, but are transmitted in the form of a system of knowledge from generation to generation. However, there are additional means of transmitting the results of thinking: light and sound signals, electrical impulses, gestures, etc. Modern science and technology widely use conventional signs as a universal and economical means of transmitting information.

Thinking is also inextricably linked with the practical activities of people. Any type of activity involves thinking, taking into account the conditions of action, planning, observation. By acting, a person solves any problems. Practical activity is the main condition for the emergence and development of thinking, as well as a criterion for the truth of thinking.

thought processes

The mental activity of a person is a solution to various mental problems aimed at revealing the essence of something. A mental operation is one of the ways of mental activity through which a person solves mental problems.

Thinking operations are varied. These are analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization, classification. Which of the logical operations a person will use will depend on the task and on the nature of the information that he subjects to mental processing.

Analysis and synthesis

Analysis- this is a mental decomposition of the whole into parts or a mental separation from the whole of its sides, actions, relations.

Synthesis- the reverse process of thought to analysis, it is the unification of parts, properties, actions, relations into one whole.

Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Synthesis, like analysis, can be both practical and mental.

Analysis and synthesis were formed in the practical activity of man. People constantly interact with objects and phenomena. Practical development of them led to the formation of mental operations of analysis and synthesis.

Comparison

Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena.

The comparison is based on analysis. Before comparing objects, it is necessary to select one or more of their features, according to which the comparison will be made.

The comparison can be one-sided, or incomplete, and multi-sided, or more complete. Comparison, like analysis and synthesis, can be of different levels - superficial and deeper. In this case, a person's thought goes from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence.

abstraction

abstraction- this is a process of mental abstraction from some signs, aspects of the concrete in order to better know it.

A person mentally highlights some feature of an object and considers it in isolation from all other features, temporarily distracted from them. An isolated study of individual features of an object, while simultaneously abstracting from all the others, helps a person to better understand the essence of things and phenomena. Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.

Specification

Specification- a process that is the opposite of abstraction and is inextricably linked with it.

Concretization is the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content.

Thinking activity is always aimed at obtaining some result. A person analyzes objects, compares them, abstracts individual properties in order to reveal what is common in them, in order to reveal the patterns that govern their development, in order to master them.

Generalization, therefore, is the selection in objects and phenomena of the general, which is expressed in the form of a concept, law, rule, formula, etc.

Types of thinking

Depending on what place the word, image and action occupy in the thought process, how they relate to each other, distinguish three types of thinking: concrete-effective, or practical, concrete-figurative and abstract. These types of thinking are also distinguished on the basis of the characteristics of tasks - practical and theoretical.

Actionable Thinking

Visual and effective- a type of thinking based on the direct perception of objects.

Specifically effective, or objectively effective, thinking is aimed at solving specific problems in the conditions of production, constructive, organizational and other practical activities of people. Practical thinking is, first of all, technical, constructive thinking. It consists in the understanding of technology and in the ability of a person to independently solve technical problems. The process of technical activity is the process of interaction between mental and practical components of work. Complex operations of abstract thinking are intertwined with the practical actions of a person, inextricably linked with them. Characteristic features concrete-effective thinking are bright strong observation, attention to detail, particulars and the ability to use them in a particular situation, operating with spatial images and schemes, the ability to quickly move from thinking to action and vice versa. It is in this kind of thinking that the unity of thought and will is manifested to the greatest extent.

Concrete-figurative thinking

Visual-figurative- a type of thinking characterized by reliance on ideas and images.

Concrete-figurative (visual-figurative), or artistic, thinking is characterized by the fact that a person embodies abstract thoughts, generalizations into concrete images.

Abstract thinking

Verbal-logical- a kind of thinking carried out with the help of logical operations with concepts.

Abstract, or verbal-logical, thinking is mainly aimed at finding common patterns in nature and human society. Abstract, theoretical thinking reflects general connections and relationships. It operates mainly with concepts, broad categories, and images, representations play an auxiliary role in it.

All three types of thinking are closely related to each other. Many people have equally developed concrete-active, concrete-figurative and theoretical thinking, but depending on the nature of the tasks that a person solves, then one, then another, then a third type of thinking comes to the fore.

Types and types of thinking

Practical-active, visual-figurative and theoretical-abstract - these are the interconnected types of thinking. In the process of the historical development of mankind, the human intellect was initially formed in the course of practical activity. So, people learned to measure land plots by experience, and then on this basis a special theoretical science gradually arose - geometry.

Genetically, the earliest kind of thinking is action-oriented thinking; actions with objects are of decisive importance in it (in its infancy it is also observed in animals).

On the basis of practical-effective, manipulative thinking arises visual-figurative thinking. It is characterized by operating with visual images in the mind.

The highest level of thinking is abstract, abstract thinking. However, here, too, thinking retains a connection with practice. As they say, there is nothing more practical than a correct theory.

The thinking of individuals is also divided into practical-effective, figurative and abstract (theoretical).

But in the process of life, one and the same person comes to the fore either one or another type of thinking. So, everyday affairs require practical-effective thinking, and a report on a scientific topic requires theoretical thinking, etc.

Structural unit of practical-effective (operational) thinking - action; artistic - image; scientific thinking concept.

Depending on the depth of generalization, empirical and theoretical thinking are distinguished.

empirical thinking(from the Greek. empeiria - experience) gives primary generalizations based on experience. These generalizations are made at a low level of abstraction. Empirical knowledge is the lowest, elementary level of knowledge. Empirical thinking should not be confused with practical thinking.

As noted by the well-known psychologist V. M. Teplov (“The Mind of a Commander”), many psychologists take the work of a scientist, a theorist, as the only model of mental activity. Meanwhile, practical activity requires no less intellectual effort.

The mental activity of the theoretician is concentrated mainly on the first part of the path of cognition - a temporary retreat, a retreat from practice. The mental activity of the practitioner is concentrated mainly on the second part of it - on the transition from abstract thinking to practice, that is, on that "hit" in practice, for the sake of which the theoretical digression is made.

A feature of practical thinking is subtle observation, the ability to focus attention on individual details of an event, the ability to use to solve a particular problem that special and singular that was not completely included in theoretical generalization, the ability to quickly move from thinking to action.

In the practical thinking of a person, the optimal ratio of his mind and will, the cognitive, regulatory and energy capabilities of the individual is essential. Practical thinking is associated with the operational setting of priority goals, the development of flexible plans, programs, great self-control in stressful conditions of activity.

Theoretical thinking reveals universal relations, explores the object of knowledge in the system of its necessary connections. Its result is the construction of conceptual models, the creation of theories, the generalization of experience, the disclosure of the patterns of development of various phenomena, the knowledge of which ensures the transformative activity of man. Theoretical thinking is inextricably linked with practice, but in its final results it has relative independence; it is based on previous knowledge and, in turn, serves as the basis for subsequent knowledge.

Algorithmic, discursive, heuristic and creative thinking are distinguished depending on the standard/non-standard nature of the tasks being solved and operational procedures.

Algorithmic thinking is focused on pre-established rules, the generally accepted sequence of actions necessary to solve typical problems.

discursive(from lat. discursus - reasoning) thinking based on a system of interconnected inferences.

heuristic thinking(from the Greek heuresko - I find) - this is productive thinking, consisting in solving non-standard tasks.

Creative thinking- thinking that leads to new discoveries, fundamentally new results.

There are also reproductive and productive thinking.

reproductive thinking- reproduction of previously obtained results. In this case, thinking merges with memory.

Productive Thinking- thinking that leads to new cognitive results.

Fundamentals of thinking

Cognizing and transforming the world, a person reveals stable, regular connections between phenomena. These connections are reflected in our consciousness indirectly - in the external signs of phenomena, a person recognizes signs of internal, stable relationships. Whether we determine, looking out the window, on wet asphalt, whether it was raining, whether we establish the laws of motion of heavenly bodies - in all these cases we reflect the world generally and indirectly- comparing facts, making conclusions, identifying patterns in various groups of phenomena. Man, not seeing elementary particles, knew their properties and, without having visited Mars, learned a lot about him.

Noticing the connections between phenomena, establishing the universal nature of these connections, a person actively masters the world, rationally organizes his interaction with it. Generalized and indirect (sign) orientation in a sensually perceived environment allows the archaeologist and investigator to restore the real course of past events, and the astronomer to look not only into the past, but also into the distant future. Not only in science and professional activity, but also in all everyday life, a person constantly uses knowledge, concepts, general ideas, generalized schemes, reveals the objective meaning and subjective meaning of the phenomena around him, finds a way out of diverse problem situations, solves the problems that arise before him. In all these cases, he carries out mental activity.

- the mental process of a generalized and indirect reflection of stable, regular properties and relations of reality that are essential for resolving cognitive problems.

Thinking forms the structure of individual consciousness, the classification and evaluation standards of the individual, his generalized assessments, his characteristic interpretation of phenomena, ensures their understanding.

To understand something means to include something new in the system of existing meanings and meanings.

In the process of the historical development of mankind, mental acts began to obey a system of logical rules. Many of these rules have acquired an axiomatic character. Formed stable forms of objectification of the results of mental activity: concepts, judgments, conclusions.

As a mental activity, thinking is a process of problem solving. This process has a certain structure - stages and mechanisms for solving cognitive problems.

Each person has his own style and strategy of thinking - cognitive (from Latin cognitio - knowledge) style, cognitive attitudes and categorical structure (semantic, semantic space).

All the higher mental functions of a person were formed in the process of his social and labor practice, in inseparable unity with the emergence and development of language. The semantic categories expressed in the language form the content of human consciousness.

The thinking of the individual is mediated by his speech. Thought is formed through its verbal formulation.

“At the very beginning, the “spirit” is cursed to be “burdened” by matter, which appears ... in the form of language.” However, thinking and language cannot be identified. Language is an instrument of thought. The basis of a language is its grammatical structure. The basis of thinking is the laws of the world, its general interconnections, fixed in concepts.

Classification of the phenomena of thinking

In the diverse phenomena of thinking, there are:

• mental activity- a system of mental actions, operations aimed at solving a specific problem;
• : comparison, generalization, abstraction, classification, systematization and concretization;
• forms of thought: concept, judgment, conclusion;
• types of thinking: practical-effective, visual-figurative and theoretical-abstract.

mental activity

According to the operational structure, mental activity is divided into algorithmic carried out according to predetermined rules, and heuristic— creative solution of non-standard tasks.

According to the degree of abstraction, empirical and theoretical thinking.

All mental acts are performed on the basis of interaction analysis and synthesis, which act as two interrelated aspects of the thought process (correlating with the analytical-synthetic mechanism of higher nervous activity).

When characterizing individual thinking, qualities of the mind- systematic, consistent, evidence-based, flexible, fast, etc., as well as type of thinking of the individual, his intellectual features.

Mental activity is carried out in the form of mental operations passing into each other: comparison, generalization, abstraction, classification, concretization. mental operations — mental actions, covering reality with three interconnected universal forms of cognition: concept, judgment and inference.

Comparison- a mental operation that reveals the identity and difference of phenomena and their properties, which makes it possible to classify phenomena and generalize them. Comparison is an elementary primary form of knowledge. Initially, identity and difference are established as external relations. But then, when comparison is synthesized with generalization, ever deeper connections and relationships are revealed, essential features of phenomena of the same class.

Comparison underlies the stability of our consciousness, its differentiation (immiscibility of concepts). Based on the comparison, generalizations are made.

Generalization- a property of thinking and at the same time a central mental operation. Generalization can be carried out at two levels. The first, elementary level is the combination of similar objects according to external features (generalization). But true cognitive value is a generalization of the second, higher level, when in a group of objects and phenomena significant common features are identified.

Human thinking moves from fact to generalization, from phenomenon to essence. Thanks to generalizations, a person foresees the future, orients himself in the concrete. Generalization begins to arise already during the formation of representations, but in full form it is embodied in the concept. When mastering concepts, we abstract from the random properties of objects and single out only their essential properties.

Elementary generalizations are made on the basis of comparisons, while the highest form of generalizations is made on the basis of isolating the essential-general, revealing regular connections and relations, i.e., based on abstraction.

Abstraction(lat. abstractio - distraction) - the operation of reflecting individual properties of phenomena that are significant in any respect.

In the process of abstraction, a person, as it were, clears the object of side features that make it difficult to study it in a certain direction. Correct scientific abstractions reflect reality deeper and more fully than direct impressions. On the basis of generalization and abstraction, classification and concretization are carried out.

Classification- grouping objects according to essential features. Unlike classification, which should be based on features that are significant in some respect, systematization sometimes it allows the choice as the basis of signs of little importance, but operationally convenient (for example, in alphabetical catalogs).

At the highest stage of cognition, there is a transition from the abstract to the concrete.

Specification(from lat. concretio - fusion) - the knowledge of an integral object in the totality of its essential relationships, the theoretical reconstruction of an integral object. Concretization is the highest stage in the cognition of the objective world. Cognition starts from the sensory diversity of the concrete, abstracts from its individual aspects, and, finally, mentally recreates the concrete in its essential fullness. The transition from the abstract to the concrete is the theoretical assimilation of reality. The sum of concepts gives the concrete in its entirety.

As a result of the application of the laws of formal thinking, people's ability to obtain inferential knowledge has been formed. The science of formalized structures of thoughts arose - formal logic.

Forms of thought

Formalized Thought Structures- forms of thinking: concept, judgment, conclusion.

concept- a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties of a homogeneous group of objects and phenomena. The more essential features of objects are reflected in the concept, the more effectively human activity is organized. Thus, the modern concept of "the structure of the atomic nucleus" to a certain extent made it possible to use atomic energy in practice.

Judgment- a certain knowledge about the subject, the assertion or denial of any of its properties, connections and relations. The formation of a judgment occurs as the formation of a thought in a sentence. A judgment is a sentence that asserts the relationship of an object and its properties. The connection of things is reflected in thinking as a connection of judgments. Depending on the content of the objects reflected in the judgment and their properties, the following types of judgment are distinguished: private and general, conditional and categorical, affirmative and negative.

Judgment expresses not only knowledge about the subject, but also subjective attitude a person to this knowledge, a different degree of confidence in the truth of this knowledge (for example, in problematic judgments such as “perhaps the accused Ivanov did not commit a crime”).

The truth of a system of judgments is the subject of formal logic. The psychological aspects of the judgment are the motivation and purposefulness of the judgments of the individual.

Psychologically, the connection of an individual's judgments is considered as his rational activity.

In the inference, the operation is carried out with the general that is contained in the singular. Thinking develops in the process of constant transitions from the individual to the general and from the general to the individual, that is, on the basis of the relationship, respectively, of induction and deduction.

Deduction is a reflection of the general connectedness of phenomena, a categorical coverage of a particular phenomenon by its general connections, an analysis of the concrete in a system of generalized knowledge. J. Bell, professor of medicine at the University of Edinburgh, once struck A. Conan Doyle (the future creator of the image of the famous detective) with subtle powers of observation. When another patient entered the clinic, Bell asked him:

• Have you served in the army?
• Yes sir! the patient replied.
• In the mountain rifle regiment?
• That's right, doctor.
• Recently retired?
• Yes sir!
• Were you in Barbados?
• Yes sir! said the retired sergeant.

Bell explained to the surprised students: this man, being courteous, did not take off his hat at the entrance to the office - the army habit affected, as for Barbados - this is evidenced by his disease, which is common only among the inhabitants of this area (Fig. 75).

inductive reasoning- a probabilistic conclusion, when, according to certain signs of some phenomena, a judgment is made about all objects of a given class. Hasty generalization without good reason is a common error in inductive reasoning.

So, in thinking, the objective essential properties and interconnections of phenomena are modeled, they are objectified and fixed in the form of concepts, judgments, conclusions.

Rice. 75. The relationship of the individual and the general in the system of inferences. Determine the starting and ending points of the route of the owner of this suitcase. Analyze the type of reasoning you used

Patterns and features of thinking

Consider the basic patterns of thinking.

1. Thinking arises in connection with the solution of a problem; the condition for its occurrence is problem situations - circumstance. in which a person meets with something new, incomprehensible from the point of view of existing knowledge. This situation is characterized lack of initial information. the emergence of a certain cognitive barrier, difficulties to be overcome with the help of the intellectual activity of the subject - by finding the necessary cognitive strategies.

2. The main mechanism of thinking, its general pattern is analysis through synthesis: the selection of new properties in an object (analysis) by means of its correlation (synthesis) with other objects. In the process of thinking, the object of cognition is constantly “included in ever new connections and, because of this, appears in ever new qualities that are fixed in new concepts: from the object, in this way, as it were, all new content is scooped out, it seems to turn every time with its other side. , all new properties are revealed in it.

The learning process begins with primary synthesis - perception of an undivided whole (phenomenon, situation). Further, based on the primary analysis, secondary synthesis.

At primary analysis problematic situation, it is necessary to focus on the key initial data, allowing to reveal hidden information in the initial information. The discovery in the initial situation of a key, essential feature makes it possible to understand the dependence of some phenomena on others. At the same time, it is essential to identify signs of possibility - impossibility, as well as necessity.

In conditions of deficiency of initial information, a person does not act by trial and error, but applies a certain search strategy - the best way to achieve the goal. The purpose of these strategies is to to cover a non-standard situation with the most optimal general approaches - heuristic search methods. These include: temporary simplification of the situation; use of analogies; solution of auxiliary problems; consideration of "extreme cases"; reformulation of the requirements of the problem; temporary blocking of some components in the analyzed system; making "leaps" through information "gaps".

So, analysis through synthesis is a cognitive "deployment" of the object of knowledge, its study from various angles, finding its place in new relationships, mental experimentation with it.

3. Thinking must be reasonable. This requirement is due to the fundamental property of material reality: every fact, every phenomenon is prepared by previous facts and phenomena. Nothing happens without a good reason. The law of sufficient reason requires that in any reasoning, a person's thoughts be internally interconnected, follow one from the other. Each particular thought must be substantiated by a more general thought.

The laws of the material world were fixed in the laws of formal logic, which should also be understood as the laws of thinking, more precisely, as the laws of the interconnection of the products of thinking.

4. Another pattern of thinking - selectivity(from lat. selectio - choice, selection) - the ability of the intellect to quickly select the knowledge necessary for a given situation, mobilize them to solve a problem, bypassing the mechanical enumeration of all possible options (which is typical for computers). To do this, the knowledge of the individual must be systematized, summarized in a hierarchically organized structure.

5. Anticipation(lat. anticipatio - anticipation) means anticipation of developments. A person is able to foresee the development of events, predict their outcome, schematically represent the most likely solution to the problem. Forecasting events is one of the main functions of the human psyche. Human thinking is based on high-probability forecasting.

The key elements of the initial situation are identified, a system of subtasks is outlined, an operational scheme is determined - a system of possible actions on the object of knowledge.

6. reflexivity(from lat. reflexio - reflection) - self-reflection of the subject. The thinking subject constantly reflects - reflects the course of his thinking, evaluates it critically, develops self-assessment criteria.

7. Thinking is characterized by constant relationship his subconscious and conscious components- deliberately deployed. verbalized and intuitively folded, non-verbalized.

8. The thought process, like any process, has structural organization. It has certain structural stages.

Thinking is a process that carries out the perception, processing and structuring of information in the process of human life. It contributes to the development of skills, gives rise to conclusions, provides vital activity. The ability to think, or think, is the distinguishing feature that distinguishes man from animals.

Characteristics of the main types of thinking

There are two main types of thinking:

• theoretical;
• practical.

The first allows you to think about distant objects and situations that are not in the field of view, the second requires the direct participation of the senses: sight, touch, smell and hearing.

The type of theoretical thinking of a person can be divided into:

• conceptual - it is based on already available information in the form of well-established concepts, on the basis of which new conclusions are built;
• figurative - when in the process of the birth of a thought, consciousness uses images, recreating them from memory;
• abstract-logical - does not use images and forms, it is used when it is impossible to rely on a visual form.

Practical thinking is divided into:

• Visual-effective - carried out in the process of working with objects. A vivid example of such thinking can be the process of picking up a puzzle by a child. During the game, tactile contact, thinking, the birth of a conclusion occur.

• Visual-figurative - is possible when using images, as an addition to a visual picture. An example of such thinking can be a design work in which a person sees the existing interior and, using images, reflects on the topic of rearrangement, repair or new furniture.

Also, thinking can be analytical and intuitive, depending on the degree of deployment in time. Analytical thinking involves logic and experience and takes time. The intuitive is based on sensations and is characterized by a high speed of flow.

According to the degree of novelty, they distinguish:

• reproductive - generating conclusions based on existing skills, most often by analogy with some example;
• productive - creating a solution based on one's own ingenuity.

Properties and functions of thinking

All types of thinking perform four main functions:

1. understanding;
2. problem solving;
3. generating your own goals:
4. reflection.

The function of understanding ensures the assimilation of new information. It makes it possible to repeat what they heard, paraphrasing the sentences in their own way. With the help of a concept, data is easier to remember, it is easier to recall it by applying logic to scarce input data. For example, when an inexperienced driver arrives at a car service and unknowingly reports in a philistine language that he doesn’t like the car’s operation, and car service employees, having an understanding of the mechanisms, laws of physics, and the sequence of operation of nodes, can identify the cause, relying on logic, while having meager owner data.

The problem solving function is based on building connections between events, predicting phenomena and choosing between available options. A person uses this function continuously, daily, many have already reached almost automaticity and acquired the function of reflection. When the solution of a particular problem once satisfied the individual, the next time he will use the decision made to solve the same problem, relying on experience, if this task is repeated regularly, thinking reflexively gives out the finished result, without exposing the chosen path to doubt.

The generation of one's own goals is the most important function in the formation of personality and self-improvement. By setting tasks for himself, a person is able to develop, learn new things, master skills, expand the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthinking. This is another distinguishing feature of a person that is not inherent in animals. Representatives of the animal world solve the problems that arise in front of them in connection with changes in weather conditions, the availability of food, mating games. Without the influence of external factors, animals will not learn anything. For this reason, individuals raised in captivity have little chance of surviving in the wild - they have grown up in conditions that provide them with food by the hour, without effort. In the wild, it is difficult for an animal to rebuild its behavior in a short time, while simultaneously learning to deal with natural competition. A person is able to develop his skills, train skills not when it is vital for him, but when it can be useful in the future.

Examples of different types of thinking

A person is able to think differently, depending on each specific situation. This is due to the effectiveness of a certain type of thinking for solving certain problems. There are several types of thinking:

• Deductive - with its help, the required conclusion is most often reached, a solution is found. Deduction is the ability to think in the direction from the general to the particular. An example of the most elementary deduction is the situation when a person enters a room and sees a broken vase on the floor. From the general data, the eyewitness receives the law of gravity and the presence of a cat in the room. After analyzing the animal's love for active games and its complete lack of accuracy in relation to dishes in conjunction with gravity, as a result of deductive thinking, a person draws a conclusion that helps to clarify the circumstances of what happened. This method is often used in forensics, medicine, research sciences. It implies the analysis of input data.
• Inductive is the opposite of deductive. The process proceeds in the opposite direction. A person may have several particular situations from which he draws general conclusions. A good example of induction is the testing of students at school. The teacher, having received the completed forms, evaluates them and draws a conclusion about the degree of education of the child, about the percentage of perception of the studied material. Newton, who discovered the law of gravity, also used induction, noting the tendency of objects to fall to the ground. The inductive method of thinking moves from the particular to the general.

• Analytical - an example of thinking based on a deep analysis of the situation. This type leads along the path from the general to the particular, structures, systematizes, without disregarding the details. This type of thinking is result-oriented. The more arguments, the faster the analysis will give a solution. For example, analysis is used by psychologists in their theoretical classes: the facial expressions of the interlocutor can tell a lot. Among the popular gestures - touching the nose, squinting, looking down - indicate that the narrator is most likely telling a lie. Psychological education will allow, with the help of analytical thinking, to combine what the client said, his behavior, complaints, circumstances, in order to draw a conclusion on how to direct a person to solve his problem.
• Creative is the freest type of thinking. It is not limited by laws and regulations, does not depend on the amount of input data. This way of thinking is not available to everyone, it is difficult to learn. It is rather congenital, less often acquired. Unlike the deductive one, it allows the most fantastic solutions, it requires a flexible and plastic mind. An example is the profession of an advertiser who creates a video for his product, which must be original, interesting, attractive, even if we are talking about the most ordinary rubber ball. Fantasy aimed at describing the subject, with the help of creative thinking, will provide an opportunity to present the product to the consumer in an original way.

• Interrogative - increasing experience and comprehensive development of the mind. Based on a large number of questions on each specific topic. Looking for answers to each, a person receives a large amount of information, becomes able to solve the problems that have arisen. Using this type of thinking, you can avoid popular mistakes in problem solving. Thanks to this feature, new facts are revealed, attention is paid to the initially inconspicuous side of the issue. It is useful to apply this method even in solving daily household problems. The wider the list of questions, the more extensively the situation will be studied. The most basic questions used in this type of application are what was the reason for what happened, what happened shortly before the incident, did it somehow affect the surrounding things, what other options for the development of the event could be, and what could become the basis. The interrogative type of thinking is close to the analytical one.

Development of different types of thinking

For full-fledged independent development, it is possible, without even understanding how thinking is, to improve it. To do this, you need to track causal relationships in everything, try to investigate every situation that deserves attention.

Interesting. Compare similar situations. For example, plants bloom on one windowsill, but the same ones do not on the other. It is important to compare: whether watering occurs at the same time, what is the illumination of the room, whether there are drafts, what the pot is made of, whether the composition of the earth is the same.

Ask yourself as many questions as you can, like a young child. Many things for adults are obvious, imperceptible, not worthy of attention. But when a child who is able to speak appears in the house, he asks his parents many questions, a considerable percentage of which often confuse adults. Children see everything differently, their brain is not limited by generally accepted principles, they are able to think broadly and very creatively. It is important for all adults to learn to think like children, not to limit themselves to customs, habits and experience.

The type of creative thinking, on the one hand, is the simplest - the main thing is to apply imagination. On the other hand, it is one of the most difficult and difficult to learn. If creativity is not the strongest side of the personality, you can use the ready-made list of tasks for development. Thinking training examples:

1. Imagine what the most ordinary green tree looks like when it is turned inside out.
2. List the uses of a round stone, 15 cm in diameter (name at least 15 uses).
3. List everything that is naturally white (or any other natural shade). As a rule, the first things that come to mind are clouds, snow and a polar bear. Only at the fifth minute of reasoning, the subject will name egg white, salt and sugar, and sea foam and limestone can only be expected after the twentieth minute of exercise.
4. Before going to bed, take 30 minutes for various tests. Over time, through training, the results will improve. Do not ignore intelligence tests. The first characteristic obtained should not upset, its task is to become a motive for starting work on oneself.

1. To read specific literature that was not attractive before, the list should include works of fiction that will help teach you to dream.
2. Even at the lessons of social studies, schoolchildren are offered to write a paper on the topic “if I were ...” and name the profession. It is also useful for an adult to use this technique once or twice a week, reflecting on the topic of what kind of specialist he could become, the manifestation of what personal qualities could be observed under the circumstances.

The human essence is prone to laziness, therefore, the brain is more developed in those who are subject to daily life difficulties, in contrast to those whose life flows measuredly, without requiring strength of character and cunning. A striking example is the comparison of a villager and a city dweller. The first one knows how his own sewage system works, he is able to determine the cause of the malfunction independently and in a short time, using deduction, analysis, and a critical type of thinking. The city dweller, based on reflex thinking, will turn off the water, plug the drain hole and call a specialist without going into details.

Table of classification of thinking in psychology

Classification criterion	Kind of thinking	Application area
By functional difference	Creative	art, advertising, PR activities
	Critical	medicine, military service, transport
By novelty	reproductive	pedagogy, construction
	Productive	design, modeling, engineering
By type of tasks to be solved	Practical	logistics areas
	Theoretical	philosophy, analysis, secondary education
According to the degree of expansion	Analytical	military-strategic direction, accounting, audit
	Intuitive	in everyday life, when meeting something new

The use of one or another type of thinking is not limited to the given areas of application, this is only a short list to which each type belongs. It is often difficult to isolate any one type from the thought process. Very often they are used in combination, complementing each other, expanding the possibilities.

The daily learning process, independently used for its brain activity, is able to fully develop the typology of thinking. To train the mind on their own is within the power of people with strong willpower, because this process is not easy. If you do this at regular intervals, you can achieve a lot in life, as well as greatly reduce the risk of developing sclerosis and dementia in old age.

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Exist 3 main forms of thinking - concept, judgment, conclusion.

concept - this is an expression of the general and most significant in the objects and phenomena surrounding us.

Basic concepts are formed in the course of the entire historical development of human society and are the result of the mental activity of many generations of people. However, the assimilation of these concepts is carried out individually by each person in the process of his development.

For a complete knowledge of an object or phenomenon, the connections between them, it is necessary to reveal the essential, most characteristic in them, which is understanding.

Without understanding, there is no successful assimilation of knowledge about reality, there is no deep knowledge of reality. The process of understanding is greatly influenced by a person's past experience, the richness of those impressions.

Thought processes are carried out in the form judgments. Judgments reveal the essence of the concept. The formation of a judgment means the disclosure of the connection and relationship between objects and phenomena of reality, that is, the disclosure of the essence of the concept.

Judgment is the affirmation or denial of any connections, relationships between objects and phenomena, between their properties and qualities.

Knowledge of any law, scientific position is the ability to express a correct judgment, that is, to reveal the essence of the content of a phenomenon, object, the connections between them, formulated in any law, position.

Each judgment is a statement of facts, relationships existing between objects, phenomena, and how correctly the judgment reflects these facts of the relationship, practice shows.

Of great importance in checking the correctness of the judgment are inferences.

Inference is a comparison and analysis of various judgments and the formation on this basis of new general or particular conclusions.

There are inferences inductive and deductive.

Inductive way of reasoning(induction) involves the establishment of general laws, rules, regulations based on the consideration of private, single facts, cases, phenomena.

deductive way of reasoning(deduction) involves the disclosure of individual, private phenomena, facts based on knowledge of general laws and regulations.

Induction and deduction are closely related. Arguing about this or that phenomenon, subject, a person makes conclusions not only of a generalizing nature, but also draws particular conclusions based on general provisions and patterns. The close connection of both types of inferences contributes to the most complete disclosure of phenomena, objects of reality.

Types of thinking.

Depending on the combination of mental operations, forms of thinking, their content, quality level, visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking are distinguished.

Visual Action Thinking is the kind of thinking associated with direct including it in practice

Usually, this type of thinking is clearly manifested in activities that require the solution of mental problems with simultaneous reinforcement by practical actions.

Visual thinking It is thinking based on ideas. A characteristic feature of this type of thinking is the extensive use of specific visual images in the process of solving a particular mental problem.