A whole world of multilingual tribes and peculiar household cultures existed before the arrival of the Russians in northeast Asia. The life of the tribes of northeast Asia before the arrival of the Russians can be judged from the Russian archival materials of the 17th-18th centuries, the news of travelers of that time and archaeological data. This information can be spread far into the depths of the past of these tribes, since the Russians found them at the level of the Stone Age.
104 Ibid.
105 V. Panov. Historical information about Hunchun. "Far East", 1900, No. 91, pp. 3-4.
The mainland regions, a huge territory from the lower reaches of the Lena to Anadyr, were occupied by the Yukaghir tribes. On the Siberian scale, the Yukaghirs were then a numerous people.
In the middle of the XVII century. There were about 4500 Yukaghirs. They consisted of 12 tribal or territorial groups. About 450 Yukagirs lived in the Len basin, about 1000 in the Indigirka basin, about 1600 in Alazeya and Kolyma, and 1300 in Anadyr. 106
In ancient times, the Yukaghirs were settled even more widely. 107 This is confirmed by the data of their language, which occupies a separate position among the surrounding languages. 108 Obviously, it was formed in a large closed area. The proximity of the Yukaghir language to the Samoyedic languages indicates that in ancient times the Yukaghir tribes came into contact with the ancestors of the Samoyeds. 109 The narrow corridor between the Samoyed and Yukagir tribes, occupied by the Lamuts and Tungus, was formed as a result of a relatively late invasion of these tribes into the lower reaches of the Lena and Olenek.
The fact that the Yukaghirs recently lived on Olenek is evidenced by folklore: the opponent of Uren-Khosun, the hero of the Olenek heroic tales, Unkebil-Khosun is directly called in one of the legends “Yukaghir”. The Yukagirs entered the lower reaches of the Lena and in the middle of the 17th century. 110
The most ancient way of life among the Yukaghirs was that of foot hunters for wild deer. The Yukagirs in the lower reaches of the Indigirka represent their ancestors as hunters of wild deer. In winter, they pursued their prey on sleds. In autumn they hunted her with the help of decoys. In the summer, small herds of wild deer were driven into the lakes, where the hunters, lying in wait for the animals, approached the deer in boats and stabbed them with spears. For all groups of tundra Yukagirs, hunting for migratory wild deer at river crossings, at the so-called "deer trades" or "animal swimming" was of great importance. 111 “In order to cross, deer usually descend to the river along the bed of a dry or shallow channel ... in a few minutes the entire surface of the river is covered with floating deer. Then hunters rush at them, hiding in their boats behind stones and bushes and usually under the wind from a deer, surround them and try to keep them. Meanwhile, two or three experienced industrialists, armed with long spears and polearms, break into the herd and stab the swimming deer with incredible speed. A good experienced hunter kills up to a hundred or more deer in less than half an hour.
106 V. I. Ogorodnikov. Essays on the history of Siberia from the beginning of the 19th century, part II, issue I. Russian conquest of Siberia. Vladivostok, 1924, pp. 54-61; B. O. Dolgikh. Tribal and tribal composition of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century. "Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography", new series, v. 55, M., pp. 379-442.
107 A. P. Okladnikov. History of the Yakut ASSR, vol. I, p. 28 (-293; M. G. Levin. Ethnic anthropology and problems of the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Far East "Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography named after N. N. Miklukho-Maclay", new series, vol. XXXVI , M., 1958, pp. 153-154, 204.
108 V. I. Iokhelson. 1) Sample materials for the study of the Yukaghir language and folklore. "Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences", vol. IX, No. 2, St. Petersburg, 1892; 2) Odul (Yukaghir) language. Sat. "Languages and writing of the peoples of the Far North", part III,
109 Y. Andere. Die Uralo-Yukagirische Frage. Stockholm, 1956; Yu. A. K e and no-vich. Yukaghir language. L., 1958, pp. 228-237.
110 Russian sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. M.-L., 1952, pp. 276-277.
111 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 214, Art. 274, ll. 172-173; f. 1177, op. 2, art. 6, l. fifteen.
112 F. P. Wrangel Journey along the northern shores of Siberia. M., 194, p. 221.
This is how F. P. Wrangel’s companion F. F. Matyushkin painted hunting “on the floats”. But the fishing was not always successful, then the Yukaghirs were starving, dying out in whole families.
Such prey of wild deer at the crossings was carried out in the lower reaches of the Alazeya, Indigirka, Kolyma, Anadyr. In those areas where there were a lot of fish, in the lower reaches of the northern rivers, fishing was important as an aid to hunting.
Groups of foot Yukagirs lived not only in the lower reaches of the rivers. In the upper reaches of the Kolyma, Yana, there are also places where fish accumulate in autumn, heading to spawning grounds. Accumulations of fish are so significant that, using the most primitive nets such as nonsense, the local population managed to prepare fish for a whole year in a few days. Modern Upper Kolyma Yukaghirs call this way of catching fish "scooping", and the places of accumulation of fish are called "chemka", "moner".
It is characteristic that the remains of dwellings - semi-dugouts, attributed by the local population to some extinct people ("omoks"), are located not on the banks of the Indigirka itself, but along small tributaries, channels. Obviously, it was here (on the main waterways that the fish goes along the fairway) that the Yukaghirs could build rides with “muzzles” or other traps, and set up nets. During the course of the rune, the fish also filled these channels, and then the Yukaghirs could provide themselves with fish with their primitive fishing gear.
The names of the rivers where the Yukaghirs lived on foot - Kolyma, Indigirka, Anadyr - "dog" - indicate the important role that the dog played in their life - their only domestic animal, on which they transported their meager property. They were real dog breeders. So, in the lower reaches of the Indigirka, Russian servicemen met in 1639 settled Yukaghir fishermen-dog breeders. “People are sedentary,” the Cossacks told about them, “but they ride dogs.”113 However, there were also domestic deer on some farms of the foot Yukaghirs. “On the same day,” Fyodor Gavrilov reported in a yasak book in 1648, “46 sables were (taken) from the great sovereign yasak from the Kolyma foot prince and deer under his amanat Kandang and from the whole family.” 114 In 1659, the son of the Indigir Yukagir, Landiya-Checha, became a guide with his reindeer to the merchants. 115 The Upper Kolyma Yukagirs also had reindeer. Significant herds of deer were in the XVII century. in the hands of the Yukagirs - Khodyns and Chuvans. On the reindeer of these Yukaghirs, the first detachments of service people moved to Kamchatka.
Tundra reindeer herders-Yukaghirs knew draft reindeer herding. Sledges and sleds are repeatedly mentioned in the documents.
The material culture of the Yukagirs was much more primitive than the culture of their neighbors, the Yakuts and Evens. The Yukaghirs themselves described their past in this way: “There were Yukaghirs, they were with stone axes, they were bone arrows, they were with knives made of rib bones. . . That's how they lived." 116 The weapons of the Yukagirs were bows with arrows, spears, stone axes. 117
113 Sat. Discoveries of Russian explorers and polar sailors in the 17th century, 1951, p.143
114 “Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 1177, op. 4, book. 260,
f.1177. op.4, book. 260. l.1
115 Colonial policy of the Muscovite state in Yakutia in the 17th century. L., 1936, page 185.
116 V.I. Yokhelson 1936 Materials on the study of the Yukaghir language and folklore, part 1. SPb. 1900 p. 74
117 Ibid., p. 93
True, this does not mean that the Yukagirs did not know iron at all. The Yukagir language even has its own terminology related to the processing of iron. But there was so little of it that, according to legend, before the arrival of the Russians, the iron ax, the greatest value, was the property of the whole family. It was used by all its members only in those cases when it was necessary to cut a thick strong tree, which was difficult to do with stone axes.
There is another legend, which figuratively tells about the first axes received from the Russians. It says: "The Russians said: 'Chop wood with this.' Everyone started chopping. Some, having cut off their legs, died. They all threw away their stone axes. They (Russians) gave knives."
By the arrival of the Russians, the Yukaghirs were divided into paternal clans. However, strong remnants of the maternal clan also survived, such as matrilocal marriage - the husband moved to live in his wife's house and worked for the bride in her clan. Among the Yukagirs, women enjoyed great independence, and girls before marriage enjoyed great freedom.
According to the legends, the lucky experienced hunter Khangicha - the breadwinner - enjoyed the greatest honor in the family. Elders were at the head of the family. Each clan had its own tribal priest shaman (alma), who combined a healer and a soothsayer. In some groups, the Yukagirs deified the dead shamans.
“And their faith will be Yukagirey: in which family the shaman dies, then taking him, cutting off the body from the bones of Eve, drying the veins, clouds in a dress, they believe in him and carry them with them on deer,” the service people reported G.F. to Miller. 119 The bones of the deceased shaman served as a family protective amulet. According to them, they guessed about the results of the fishery. 120
In 1652, when the Yukaghir amanats died from some illness, their relatives turned to the Cossacks with a request to keep the "bone", for which they promised to deliver yasak. 121 Along with shamanism, the trade cult was widespread among the Yukagirs. The Yukaghirs believed in the existence of "master spirits" of places and animals and believed that each creature has its own master spirit. Of the animals, the elk enjoyed special honor.
The closest neighbors of the Yukagirs in the north-east of Siberia were the Chukchi. In one of the early reports of the Lena Cossacks it was reported: "... and those chuhchi live between the Alazeya and Kolyma rivers on the tundra, they say their people are 400 or more." 122 They occupied the mouth of the river. Kolyma. 123 To the east of the Kolyma, the Chukchi were encountered at Cape Shelagsky, 124 from where, further east, their settlements were located along the coast of the Arctic Ocean up to Cape Dezhnev. On the coast of the Bering Sea, the Chukchi settlements were located from Cape Dezhnev in the north to the hall. Cross in the southwest. Throughout this space, the Chukchi settled settlements interspersed with the Eskimos. Throughout the
118 W. Jochelson. Material culture and social organization of the Koryak.
119 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 199, d. 481, part VII, l. 313.
120 V. I. Iokhelson. Materials for the study of the Yukagir language and folklore.
121 History of the Yakut ASSR, v.II. M.-L., 1957, p. 107.
122 Sat. “Discoveries of Russian explorers and polar sailors in the 17th century”, p. 143.
123 B. P. Polevoy. The discovery of the petition of the discoverers of Kolyma. Sat. "Siberia of the period of feudalism", no. 2, Novosibirsk, 1965.
124 Russian Sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, p. 100.
dissimilarities, even then there were settlements with a mixed Chukchi-Eskimo population. South of the hall. Cross only in the lower reaches of the river. Anadyr, at the mouth of the river. Kanchalan lived Chukchi. 125 These data are also confirmed by archaeological finds. 126 ВXVII century. on the river itself Anadyr, apparently, there were no permanent settlements of the Chukchi. Consequently, in the southeast, the border of the settlement of the Chukchi began at the mouth of the river. Kanchalan, on the northern shore of the Anadyr estuary. Following to the northwest, the border of their settlement passed approximately along the middle course of the rivers flowing into the Anadyr on the left (Tanyurer, Belaya). Further, it passed northeast of the upper reaches of the Big and Small Anyui, descending closer to the Chaun Bay through the tops of the rivers flowing into it, and went to the river. Kolyma below the mouth of Anyui. Throughout the outlined space of the interior regions, purely Chukchi toponymy is preserved, while on the coast of the Bering and Chukchi Seas - both Chukchi and Eskimo. There are no statistical data on the number of Chukchi in the middle of the 17th century. no. However, based on information from the beginning and middle of the 18th century, it can be assumed that there were about 8-9 thousand of all Chukchi at that time. 127
The authors of the first news about the Chukchi of the XVII century. they are divided by occupation into reindeer herders and sedentary sea hunters and at the same time indicate that both of these groups of Chukchi were intensively engaged in hunting wild deer. However, even then, the specialization of one part of the Chukchi in the field of reindeer husbandry, and the other in the field of sea fur hunting, was clearly indicated.
In 1647, M. Stadukhin described the economic activities of the Chukchi as follows: “The Chukchi are the same as the Samoyed, deer, sedentary.” A little lower in the same message it is said that the Chukchi are moving on deer to the Bear Islands and there "they beat the sea animal walrus." 128 Judging by the report of M. Stadukhin, the Western Chukchi then conducted a complex economy. They combined reindeer breeding with sea hunting and, apparently, land hunting. To the east of the Kolyma, there was a more distinct division between the reindeer Chukchi and the settled sea hunters. The latter lived on the coast of the sea throughout the year, where they hunted marine mammals: walruses, seals and whales. In the summer months, they undertook long-distance hunting expeditions to the Kolyma, Amguema, Anadyr and other rivers, where they hunted wild deer while crossing them from one bank to another. It is known that huge herds of wild deer made regular migrations from south to north and back. In spring they moved north and crossed rivers on ice, and in August-September, returning from the North, they swam across rivers in certain places. There were especially many such fishing grounds on the rivers flowing in the meridional direction (the Anadyr and its tributaries). Chukchi gathered to such places. They sailed on large canoes along with their families, accompanied by small single canoes in which the hunters sailed. According to data from the middle of the 1st century, by the end of July, the Chukchi sailed to Anadyr in "canoes in a hundred of fifty or more, each with 15 and 20 or more people." 129 Thus, Anadyr sailed from the coast of the Bering Sea
125 V.I. Ogorodnikov. The conquest of the Yukagir land. “Proceedings of the State University of Public Education in Chita”, book I, Chita, 1922, p. 270; Archive of the Academy of Sciences, f. 21, op. 4, book. 31, l. 277
126 A.P. Okladnikov, V.V. Naryshkin. New data on ancient cultures on the Chukchi Peninsula "Soviet Ethnography", 1955, No. 1.
127 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century. L., 1935, pp. 158, 161, 179.
128 Additions to historical acts, vol. III, doc. 24.
129 Central State Historical Archive of Leningrad, f. Senate, Secret Expedition, d. 1552, l.12.
more than 2 thousand Chukchi, including women and children. By the same time, deer Chukchi were gathering on the coast of the Anadyr estuary. They also took part in this great collective fishery. Hunting was carried out at the moment when a herd of wild deer crossed the river. When the deer reached the middle of the river, the Chukchi quickly left the ambush in single-seat kayaks, surrounded the deer and stabbed them with special “thorns” afloat. Pokolschiki were strong and agile men, while other Chukchi, including women, caught the carcasses of dead and wounded deer carried away by the current. Apparently, they hunted a lot of deer. According to the data of the first half of the 16th century, “when there is a good melt, then, without turning off the babies, twenty deer get for each”. 130 Autumn hunting gave meat, high quality skins, necessary for winter clothes, footwear and for making parts of the dwelling. Deer meat was separated from the bones and dried. Bones, deer were finely crushed and bone fat was rendered out of them, which was eaten along with dried meat and used for lighting. The Chukchi were also engaged in hunting wild deer at other times of the year, using bows and arrows.
Hunting for wild deer was an occupation of both nomadic and settled Chukchi. This is their traditional occupation, which has its roots in ancient times. By the middle of the XVII century. it has already begun to lose its former significance both for the reindeer Chukchi and for those who lived mainly at the expense of sea hunting. Reindeer husbandry of the Chukchi was still poorly developed. It only acquired the character of pastoral reindeer husbandry. The deer herds of the Chukchi of that time were small. Deer were used mainly as a means of transportation and for hunting purposes. There were reindeer herders mainly due to hunting, partly fishing.
By the middle of the XVII century. The Chukchi, who inhabited the coast of the Bering and Chukchi Seas, lived mainly at the expense of sea fur hunting. From hunting for marine mammals, they received their main food (meat, fat); walrus skins were used to tighten the frames of canoes (leather boats), to prepare belts needed for harness, for rigging canoes, for lines to harpoons, and were used for roofing summer yarangas. Raincoats were sewn from the intestines of a walrus. The skins of seals (seals, bearded seals) were used for sewing clothes, shoes, bags for storing various household items and some products, skins for storing fat; belts of various sections were cut out of them, with which parts of the sled were fastened, belt nets were knitted for seal fishing, and lines for harpoons were made.
The fat of marine animals was used for food, was used for lighting and heating the home. Hunting tools, arrowheads, harpoons, picks, harpoon attachments, hunting sleds, parts of sailing rigging for canoes, and some household items (scoops, spoons) were made from walrus tusks. The walrus tusk also served as a material for the manufacture of art objects (bone sculpture).
Whalebone was used to pad the runners of the sledges, and nets and fishing lines were woven from its fibers. Whalebone was used to make cups and inserts for harpoon tips. Whale bones were used as building material (beams and crossbars of dugouts, hangers, storehouses).
Hunting for whales and partly for walruses was carried out from canoes with the help of harpoons and was of a collective nature, while hunting
130 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 199, No. 528. vol. I-tetr. 19, l. 32.
for seals and polar bears was individual. Harpoons, spears, and knives were mainly used for hunting marine animals.
Walrus fishing was of the greatest importance in the life of the Primorye Chukchi; walruses, in addition to meat and fat, gave high-strength skins. The tusks of walruses were especially valuable for coastal hunters. Already in the first reports about the Primorsky Chukchi, the importance of walrus tusk as a material for making tools was emphasized. In 1647, Isai Ignatiev and the Alekseev Family reached the Chaun Bay on a koch, “and they found people in the bay, and they are called Chukchi, and a small place was traded with them. . . they brought a merchant to them on the shore, laid it, and they put in that place the bones of a fish tooth (as walrus tusks were then called) a little, and not every tooth is intact; they made picks and axes from that bone. 131
Fishing, apparently, the Chukchi did little. Fish were caught with bone hooks, short nets woven from deer tendons or whalebone fibers. The nets were set up from the shore.
When hunting land animals, the Chukchi used complex bows, arrows with various tips and spears. When hunting marine mammals, they used throwing spears (harpoons) with detachable tips, to which long lines were attached. A bow with arrows and a spear were also weapons of the Chukchi warriors.
Deer antlers and bones were widely used as material for tools and household items. Arrowheads, piercings, parts of a team, handles, spears for reindeer sleds, spoons, hooks for hanging, knives, plates for shells and much more were made from them.
The main means of transportation of the Chukchi overland in the XVII century. deer served. They harnessed them to the sled. The settled Chukchi apparently also used dogs. Then they had a fan-shaped type of dog team, which has been preserved until recently.
The Chukchi had two types of dwellings - portable and permanent. The reindeer Chukchi used portable housing in all seasons, while the settled ones used it only in summer. In winter, they lived in semi-dugouts, the type and design of which they borrowed from the Eskimos. The building material was the jawbones and ribs of whales, wood, and turf. 132 It is no coincidence that one of the types of semi-dugouts was called "valka-ran" - a dwelling made of jaws. Several families of close relatives lived in semi-dugouts. Summer dwellings were above ground. Their skeleton was covered with walrus or deer skins. Inside, they had canopies sewn from deer skins, and for settled Chukchi, from the skins of polar bears. Grease lamps burned in the canopies. They illuminated the dwelling and gave warmth. 133
The household utensils of the Chukchi were distinguished by their simplicity and a small number of items. Grease lamps were hollowed out of sandstone or made of clay. The cauldrons necessary for cooking food were made of clay mixed with coarse sand. According to Chukchi legends, clay and sand were kneaded with the blood of hunted animals, and dog hair was added to this mixture to make it more viscous. In addition to earthenware, they had wooden utensils, mainly dishes on which
131 Russian Sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, p. 110.
132 S.I. Rudenko Ancient culture of the Bering Sea and the Eskimo problem. M.-L., 1947, pp. 69-108.
133 I S. Vdovin. Essays on the history and ethnography of the Chukchi. M. - L., 1965, pp. 44-49.
meat was laid out. Fire was produced by friction with the help of a special bow projectile. The Primorye Chukchi cooked their food on oil lamps in winter, and in summer in special rooms where whale bones were burned, pouring fat on them.
The main social unit of both nomadic and settled Chukchi in the middle of the 17th century. there was a large patriarchal family with many remnants of more ancient social relations, in particular with remnants of group marriage, levirate, sororate, polygamy, etc. Even then, they coexisted simultaneously with private and communal property: private property for deer, communal property for pastures, hunting grounds, dwellings, etc. They experienced the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system. Judging by the data of folklore, they had an initial form of patriarchal slavery.
According to the Chukchi, the surrounding world was spiritualized. Each object lived a life similar to human life, although it had a different material form. The nature surrounding the Chukchi was filled with creatures benevolent to man - vayrgyt and evil, harmful, spirits - kelet. The benevolent beings helped man in his labor activity, while the evil ones harmed him. They, for example, caused cases of deer, moved into a person, brought him illness and death. The sun and stars are benevolent vayrgyt. The most important being was considered nargynen (“universe”, literally “all outer space”). Ideas about these creatures were vague, vague. They were looking for patronage, help and protection. Since successes or failures in labor activity, in hunting depended on the benevolent disposition of the vayrgyts, the Chukchi cajoled them by means of sacrifices practiced on various occasions. Walruses, whales, deer were the most common objects of worship among the Chukchi. Perhaps the earliest message on this subject came to us from 1647, compiled by M. Stadukhin, a well-known explorer of the north-east of Siberia. He says that near the river. Chukchi (west of the Kolyma River) live Chukchi. “And those Chukchi on this side of the Kalyma from their homes from that river in the winter move on deer to that island one day, and on that island they hunt the sea animal walrus and bring walrus heads with all their teeth, and in their own way they are those walrus heads prayer." 134
Traces of the widespread cult of walruses and whales can be traced to the present not only on the coast of the Arctic Ocean, but also on the Pacific. I. S. Vdovin managed to observe traces of the cult gathering of walrus heads near Cape Shelagsky, near the villages of Ryrkaypiy (Cape Schmidt), Enurmin (Cape Heart-Stone) and in other places. Thus, this cult was widespread not only among the Chukchi and Eskimos, but also among the Koryaks.
South of Anadyr 135 along the coast of the Bering Sea to the river. Uni, and along the western coast of Kamchatka from the river. Tigil in the south 136 to the northern corner of the Penzhina Bay lived settled Koryaks. The settled Koryaks also occupied the northwestern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk up to the river. Ola. 137 "Ostrozhki" of settled Koryaks were located not only in the lower
134 Additions to historical acts, vol. III, doc. No. 24.
135 Ibid., vol. IV, doc. No. 7.
136 I. I. Ogryzko. Settlement and number of Itelmens and Kamchatka Koryaks at the end of the 17th century. “Scientific notes of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen”, v. 222, L., 1961, pp. 173-174. 137 Additions to historical acts, vol. V, doc. No. 73.
but also on the middle and upper reaches of more or less large rivers of Kamchatka (for example, on the rivers Tigil, Palana, Karaga, Rusanov, etc.) 138 . .The entire interior of the Kamchatka Peninsula from the river. Bolshoi in the south 139 up to the right tributaries of the Anadyr - the Velikaya and Maina rivers, the valleys of the lower and middle reaches of the Penzhina, Gizhiga, Parenya, Yama, Ola rivers, as well as the Taigonos Peninsula, were occupied by deer Koryaks.
The number of Koryaks in the 17th century. was completely unknown. Even S.P. Krasheninnikov wrote that “it was impossible to get any real news about the Koryak people”. 140 According to B. O. Dolgikh, the estimated number of Koryaks by the end of the 17th century. was 10785 people, 141 and according to the calculations of I. S. Gurvich, there were more Koryaks - about 13 thousand. 142 Thus, the question of the number of Koryaks at the end of the 17th century. requires further study.
The closest contact between Russians and Koryaks began in the 80s of the 17th century. Almost simultaneously, the advance of the Russians from Okhotsk to the north along the sea coast and from the Anadyr prison to the south to the Kamchatka side began. 143
Like the Chukchi, the Koryaks were divided into sedentary and nomadic. In turn, the settled Koryaks were divided into several territorial groups, differing from one another in language and some elements of culture. “And in Penzhina,” Vl. Atlasov, - the Koryaks live ... they speak their own special language ... And they eat fish and every animal and seal. And their yurts are reindeer and rovduga... And behind those Koryaks live foreign Lutorians, and the language and everything is similar to Koryak, and their yurts are earthen, similar to Ostyak yurts.”144
The settled Koryaks were engaged in fishing, sea hunting and hunting for mountain sheep, wild deer and bears. Most of all they were fishermen. As you know, the rivers of Kamchatka, as well as the rivers flowing into the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea, abounded in salmon species of fish. Fishing was the main source of livelihood for the Koryaks. Fish were caught in rivers and lakes at spawning grounds with nets tied from deer tendons or from threads made from nettles. Basically, yukola was made from fish, which was stored in special structures (booths) on high piles. Yukola was the main winter food of the settled Koryaks.
The farther north along the coast of the Kamchatka Isthmus, the more important in the life of the Koryaks was the marine fur trade. They hunted seals, whales, and on the coast of the Bering Sea - walruses.
On land, the Koryaks hunted wild deer, which were found in the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and mountain sheep. They were mined with a bow and arrows, as well as with the help of loops that were installed on animal paths. Everywhere on the territory of the settlement of the Koryaks, brown bears were found, which were also the subject of their hunting.
By the time of contact with the Russians, the Koryaks already had developed pastoral reindeer husbandry. Herds of some patriarchal communities
138 I. I. Ogryzkov. Settlement and number of Itelmens..., pp. 189-192.
139 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, p. 31. S.P.
140 S.P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka. M.-L., 1949, p. 726.
141 B. O. Dolgikh. Tribal and tribal composition of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century, p. 561.
142 I. S. Gurvich. Ethnic history of the north-east of Siberia. M., 1966, p. 109.
143 M. I. Belov. New data on the services of Vladimir Atlasov and the first Russian campaigns against Kamchatka. "Chronicle of the North", L.-M., 1957.
144 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, p. 31; S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 448.
were numerous. Deer were the private property of individual members of the community. Among the Koryaks there was an inequality of property, which was sharply evident to the first Russian observers.
The reindeer gave the Koryaks not only food, but also material for clothing, footwear, and housing; surpluses of reindeer herding products went to settled Koryaks, in exchange for them, reindeer herders received products of the Marine hunting trade (blubber, skins and skins of marine mammals). “Everyone wears a dress made of deerskin,” wrote S.P. Krasheninnikov __ in which there is no cancellation from Kamchatka, because Kamchadals also receive reindeer dress from them, as already announced above. 145 Deer also served as a means of transportation. They were harnessed to cargo and passenger sleds, they were ridden only in winter. 146
The tools of labor and hunting of the Koryaks were made of wood, stone and bone. It is interesting that their axes (adzes), arrowheads, spears, men's and women's knives (pakul) show almost complete resemblance to similar items of the Chukchi and Siberian Eskimos. The weapons of the Koryaks also had much in common with the weapons of the Chukchi and Eskimos. “Their military weapons consist of bows, arrows and spears, which before this were made of bones and stones ... They used to have stone and bone axes and knives, and wooden flint, which they still use more,” wrote S. P. Krasheninnikov. 147 Speaking about the Alyutor settled Koryaks, V. Atlasov noted: “... they have a gun, bows and arrows made of bone and stone.” 148
Reindeer Koryaks used deer as a means of transportation on land, and dogs, which they also harnessed to sleds, served as a settled Koryaks. As S. P. Krasheninnikov noted: “. . Sedentary Koryak also have deer, only rare ones and not in large numbers, but they use them only for traveling. 149 On reindeer harnessed to sleds, the Koryaks engaged in battle with the enemy. “The Koryak deer on sleds go out to battle: one rules, and the other shoots from a bow.” 150 They traveled along the rivers on bahts (in the southern areas of settlement), and on the sea - on canoes. The latter differed in their size, especially among the Penzhin Koryaks. “Penzhin foreigners have canoes instead of boats for sailing,” Vl. Atlasov, - sewn from sealskin, 6 sazhens in length, and 1/2 sazhens across, and in those canoes, 30 and 40 people swim at sea for seal and fat fishing. 151
Reindeer Koryaks lived in portable dwellings, the frame of which was made up of light poles and covered with panels sewn from reindeer skins. Inside such a dwelling, curtains were placed, also sewn from deer skins. There were as many as there were families living under one roof. In the middle of the tent, a fire was burning, on which food was cooked. The canopies were illuminated and heated by oil-burning lamps, in which either bone fat or the fat of marine animals burned. Summer tents were covered with rovduga panels. 159
The settled Koryaks had special winter and summer dwellings. In winter, they lived in semi-dugouts, with an inlet at the top, which also served as a chimney. Several families of close relatives lived in such semi-dugouts. In summer they settled in cone-shaped
145 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 453.
146 Ibid., 453-454.
147 Ibid., pp. 460, 729.
148 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, pp. -26.
149 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 455.
150 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the XVIII in p. 32.
151 Ibid., pp. 32-33.
152 Ibid., p. 31.
booths, which were built on high pillars and covered with grass. Each family had its own booth. The same booths served as warehouses, where yukola harvested in summer was stored in winter.
The Koryaks ate fish, meat of deer, mountain sheep, marine mammals, collected pine nuts, berries, and some types of edible roots.
They used earthenware, birch bark and leather utensils, weaved grass mats, baskets, bags for storing supplies of pine nuts, berries, and roots of edible plants.
The social relations of the Koryaks, apparently, did not fundamentally differ from the social relations of the Chukchi. The main social unit of the Koryaks was a large patriarchal family with preserved remnants of the maternal family. Among the reindeer Koryaks, such an economic and social unit was the camp community, which united the closest relatives - the patriarchal family. “In one place there are yurts of four and five, but more than one,” noted S. P. Krasheninnikov. 153 Among the settled Koryaks, this was a group of relatives (a large patriarchal family) united around the main means of hunting - canoes - a canoe community. Members of such a community lived in one semi-dugout. “They didn’t have initial people before, but whoever in which family is rich in deer, he was in charge in that family, because all the poor and meager deer live near that relative of his, and they supply them with food and clothes, and they guard his herd ". 154 As can be seen, the property inequality on the basis of reindeer ownership among the Koryaks has gone far. "Wives and children have special herds." 155 They already have the beginnings of patriarchal slavery. Foreigners were slaves. "Kholopei have the Chukchi and Kamchatka peoples." 156
The Koryaks practiced polygamy, especially among the wealthy. “The rich marry the rich, and the poor marry the poor ... They have two and three wives, and keep them in different places, giving special shepherds and herds.” 157 Exogamous norms of marriage among the Koryaks, as well as among the Chukchi, no longer existed. “They take wives most of their kind, cousins, aunts and stepmothers, but they do not marry mothers, daughters, sisters and stepdaughters.” 158 For a bride, they worked for three to five years.
Animism lay at the heart of the Koryaks' religious beliefs. They inspired the phenomena of nature. They made sacrifices to the “spirits” of mountains, rivers, the sea, etc., in order to cause a beneficence from their side in the form of successful hunting, fishing, prosperity. They also had shamans who, by playing a tambourine, summoned helper spirits, and with their help fought against evil spirits. 159 Among the settled Koryaks were shamans, who were "revered as healers." However, they “treated” the sick only by playing the tambourine, allegedly “chasing away the spirits” of the disease.
At the same time, the Koryaks, like the Chukchi, had many practical skills related to hunting and fishing, with knowledge of local natural conditions and their characteristics. Their dwellings, clothing, vehicles, tools and weapons were well adapted to the harsh nature, they were very perfect inventions, which only
153 Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 729.
154 Ibid., p. 726.
155 Ibid., p. 731.
156 Ibid., p. 726.
157 Ibid., p. 458.
158 Ibid. nine
159 Ibid., p. 455.
could be done under these conditions. Their amazing ability to rationally use all the products of reindeer breeding, sea fishing, fishing, and the surrounding sparse vegetation is striking.
Eskimos
Eskimos are the classic representatives of the way of marine hunters of the Arctic.
The Eskimos, as we have seen, are the northernmost people in the world who have managed to adapt to the specific conditions of life in the high Arctic latitudes. Generations of scientists have been interested in their history primarily because the Eskimos created a peculiar culture of Arctic St. John's hunters, and also because they were one of the last waves of immigrants from Asia to America. This is the only people that inhabits both the Arctic shores of the Old World and the New, American continent. The history of the Eskimos consists of grandiose migrations, during which they mastered not only Alaska, but eventually reached the shores of Greenland, where the Vikings back in the 9th century. n. e. we met undersized "skrelings" wrapped in seals and deerskins.
Traces of the ancient life of the Eskimos can be traced in vast expanses along the coast of the Bering Sea and the Bering Strait, along the Arctic coast of the Arctic Ocean to the mouth of the river. Kolyma in the west, along the northern shores of Alaska, the islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and on the coast of Greenland.
In the 17th-18th centuries, when the Asian Eskimos came into contact with the Russians, they lived the old life of the sea hunters of the Stone Age and preserved at the core the culture that had been developing among them for thousands of years. It is called "protohistoric" in Alaska.
The Eskimos lived in semi-underground dwellings. The basis of their economy was walrus and whale hunting, as well as fishing, gathering and hunting for birds and tundra animals.
Walrus hunting, judging by ethnographic data, began from the end of April and continued until November-December with minor deviations in terms associated with ice conditions. In spring, at the end of April and in May, walruses lay on the drifting ice along the coast. Hunters brought canoes on special sleds to the edge of fast ice, lowered them into the water and went out to sea to fish. Noticing an ice floe with walruses lying on it, the hunters silently, so as not to frighten off the dormant animals, swam up to it and landed on the ice. Having crept up to the walruses, the hunters beat the animals with spears equipped with stone or bone tips.
With the disappearance of ice, hunting for walruses continued on the high seas with canoes using harpoons. Some lull in hunting came in the month of June, when the walruses moved away from the shores. Since August, the walrus trade has revived again, as at this time the animals again approached the shore.
Whale hunting was carried out with canoes. The harpooned and exhausted animal was finished off with a special pike, trying to hit him right in the heart. In ancient times, the Eskimos hunted mainly the bowhead whale. An experienced harpooner struck the animal that surfaced near the canoe in the heart with one blow with a lance. Hunting the bowhead whale, despite its grandiose size, was relatively safe, since the bowhead whale is less mobile than the smaller gray whale that lives in the waters of the Bering Sea, which is more difficult to hunt. Before finishing off a gray whale, they threw
several harpoons, in which special “puff-puff” air bags made from whole-skinned seal skins were attached with a line. There were cases when a gray whale harpooned several times, carrying up to 10 “puff-puff” floats, nevertheless left, since it was difficult to approach it on oars for the last final blow with a pike.
Hunting walrus and especially whale required a large team of hunters, organization and specialization of the work of each member of such an association. Ethnographic materials show with sufficient persuasiveness that such an association among the Asian Eskimos was the paternal clan.
The remnants of primitive communal patriarchal-tribal relations, judging by the data of ethnography, were preserved among the Eskimos until the beginning of the 20th century. 160 The tribal community consisted of a number of small families. The most important feature of the genus was exogamy. Within the framework of one family, marriage between its members was previously strictly prohibited. An Eskimo legend tells that a young man who entered into marriage with his cousin, the daughter of his father's younger brother, was killed by his father.
The predominant form of marriage was marriage with working for the bride. There were cases of the conclusion of a marriage contract between the parents of young children, and sometimes even before their birth. Even in the recent past, there was a custom of exchanging wives, as well as polygamy. There were cases when a person from another clan, who married and remained in the wife’s clan, was adopted by the clan, and he was called “ignykak” - “adopted son”, from the word “ignyk” - son. If a child was adopted by a member of the clan - an orphan from the same clan, then he was called "anlisyagak" - "adopted son, pupil." At the head of the clan at the beginning of the 20th century. there was a tribal elder - nunalihtak. It was usually an old man or an elderly man. His duty was to regulate the social and industrial life of the clan. He opened and closed the fishing season, determined the time of travel for the purpose of exchange, and supervised the performance of festive ceremonies. Together with the elders of his own clan and tribal elders of other clans, he sorted out the quarrels and lawsuits of his fellow villagers. The duties of a tribal elder were not elective - they usually passed through the male line, usually from father to son. Often, the tribal elder of one of the most powerful and respected clans led the entire village. Each clan occupied its strictly defined territory in the village, where their dwellings were located. In the village Sireniki still has the ruins of two huge now (dugouts), in which at the end of the 18th century. the clans Silyakshagmit and Syaigogmit lived. According to legend, from the present day of the Silyakshagmit family, seven canoe artels went out to sea for fishing, and from the present day of the Syaigogmit family, eight canoe artels. There were 12 hunters in each kayak artel. According to informants, from 250 to 400 people lived in each dugout. In addition, the places where there were dryers with canoes and pits for storing meat were strictly demarcated between clans. It should be noted that the hunting territory of all clans in all villages was common. On the basis of tribal relations, the main production unit was formed - the canoe artel. Each clan had one, two, three or more canoe artels, depending on the size of the clan. Usually the canoe artel consisted of 12 people. In addition to hunting canoes, each clan
160 D.A. Sergeev Remnants of the paternal family among the Asian Eskimos. "Soviet Ethnography", 1962, No. 6, pp. 35-42
had a large transport canoe for 40 rowers or more for long-distance trips with commercial and military purposes.
The distribution of the prey of the marine fur trade was carried out equally among all members of the genus. The children of the deceased member of the clan were given the same amount of meat, fat, skins as the rest of the members of the clan. Each clan had its own special holidays and tribal traditions. There is, for example, a legend that in Naukan the wife of a hunter from the Nunagmit family gave birth to a whale. When the baby whale became an adult, he was released into the sea, and he annually brought sea animals to the shore, where hunters from the Nunagmit clan lived. This aroused the anger of the hunters from the Mamrokhpagmit clan, and they killed the whale. The legend reflects the enmity that once existed between the clans of Nunagmit and Mamrokhpagmit. Later this hostility ceased.
The Imtugmit clan had a particularly complex festive ritual with various incantations, songs, dances, with the observance of many prohibitions at the festival in honor of the killed bowhead whale, which was held in December. At the end of the holiday, the team that hunted the whale cut their hair in a special way, and only after the collective haircut did the hunters start a common meal, a meal of friendship. Then followed the rite of purification. Until the completion of these ceremonies throughout the holiday, the hunters of the family were forbidden not only to go fishing, but even to appear on the shore.
During the holiday, women in a special festive zhirnik lit a generic fire. By the brightness and evenness of the flame, possible successes and failures in the upcoming fishery were determined. The transfer of fire from one clan to another was strictly forbidden.
It was also forbidden to transfer hot food cooked on ancestral fire from dwelling to dwelling. A similar prohibition existed in the fishery: here, while hunting for a whale, it was impossible to transfer weapons, oars, as well as any items from a canoe of one kind to a canoe of another kind.
Until recently, the Asian Eskimos also preserved family cemeteries. So, over the village Naukan on the hill there is a cemetery, where each clan had its own specific place for burial. The most convenient places for burials were occupied by clans considered natives of this village.
In the 17th century the first meeting of the Eskimos with the Russians took place.
Very close to the settled peoples of the northeast, the Nivkhs also adjoined in their way of life. Their main occupations were fishing, marine hunting and hunting. They were engaged in the manufacture of clothes from fish skins and animal skins, the processing of iron (the manufacture of hunting and fishing tools, utensils, weapons). They lived in villages in "uluses", in winter - in dugouts, in summer - in "cages" on stilts. They rode dogs. They were divided into patriarchal families and had elected elders.
Kamchadals-Itelmens
S.P. Krasheninnikov pointed out that the words "Kamchatka", "Kamchadal" passed to the Russians through the Koryaks, and the Kamchadals called themselves Itelmens. According to V. Atlasov, in the last years of the XVII century. Kamchadals occupied the whole of Kamchatka from Tigil and Uka in the north to the river. Golygina in the south. According to Atlasov, 25 thousand Kamchadals lived in the valley of the river alone. Kamchatka. But this is clearly an exaggerated figure. From conversations with old Kamchadals, from traditions and legends, it turns out that there used to be more villages in Kamchatka, but the villages themselves were much smaller: two or four yurts in each.
V. Atlasov was the first to report that “their yurts are earthen in winter, and summer ones are on poles, three sazhens high from the ground, paved with boards and covered with spruce bark, and they go to those yurts by stairs.”10 Most of the buildings in the village of Kamchadals were outbuildings, booths for drying fish. Sometimes, with one large yurt, there were up to 20 or even more booths. For a short summer, the Kamchadals lived, or rather spent the night, in booths under bark or grass roofs on floorings made of poles covered with grass.
Already from the first reports of Atlasov’s detachment, it became known that the Kamchadals had “whisker bows, whale bows, stone and bone arrows, and iron is not their parent”, that “Kamchadals cut their tails and mix them into clay and make pots to make clay with wool knitted, and from others they sew earmuffs. 162
“While fighting, Kamchadals threw stones from slings from behind the fortifications, and they threw large stones directly from the prisons with their hands, fought with sticks and pointed stakes ... And Kamchadals on skis come out to fight in winter. .., and in the summer they go out to battle on foot, naked, and others in clothes. 163
Atlasov found the Kamchadals in clothes made from the skins of sables, foxes and deer, trimmed with dog fur. Honby were women's home dress, honby was put on from the legs. Men at home and in the summer in the crafts were limited to only a roved loincloth. In rainy weather, they wore a cape woven from grass in the form of a cloak.
The Kamchadals borrowed outerwear and footwear from the Koryaks: a deaf kukhlyanka, a hat, trousers and a bag made of deer fur and kamus - skins from deer legs. On the road in winter, a double fur parka was put on over the kukhlyanka. Before putting on a torbaza - khun, fur stockings (pamyan) were pulled over the legs with fur to the leg. Winter hunting footwear among Kamchadals was sewn from fish skin, the leg was wrapped with tonshich - mint grass. Tonsic was rolled up in the form of an insole and put into a bag for warmth. Under Krasheninnikov, a grass wig was considered the best female headdress. Some women sewed their hair into a wig.
The main food of the Kamchadals in the time of Krasheninnikov was dried fish - yukola (noz) from salmon family fish: chinook salmon, chum salmon, red, pink salmon and coho salmon. In early spring, char was caught in the rivers. Late autumn coho salmon was most often frozen and thus preserved for the winter. Some of the fish was smoked. The head with the vertebral bone and entrails was separated from the fish and dried separately for dogs. For dogs, fish was harvested for the winter in pits (“sour fish”).
On fishing trips, fish, cleaned of scales and intestines, were placed between two willow sticks, tied with a willow bast and placed over a fire on four props. Finely chopped nettle leaves were added to the fish. Caviar was dried in the sun and was always eaten with birch and willow bark, finely chopped like noodles. Caviar was harvested for future use in thick hollow grass stalks - "pipes" and dried. It was believed that in this form it is better to store it and take it with you on a hunt.
A prominent place in the food of the Kamchadal-Itelmens was occupied by the meat and fat of bears, rams and pinnipeds: seals, akiba, sea lions and bearded seals. They also hunted deer in the tundra. The meat was fried and boiled; used in raw form
161 N. Ogloblin. Two "skaska" Vl. Atlasov about the discovery of Kamchatka. "Readings of social history and Russian antiquities", book. 3, sec. 1, 1891, pp. 14.-\; Vl. Atlasov was the first to visit Kamchatka in 1697-1699. and gave a description of the newly discovered country.
162 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts. Siberian Order, st. 1422, ll. 1-12.
163 N. Ogloblin. Two "fairy tales" of Atlasov. . ., page 14. 422
only the kidneys, liver, brains and flippers of animals were taken. Even Dietmar in the middle of the XIX century. everywhere I observed the archaic method of cooking mountain sheep meat in pits dug in the ground; a fire was made in the pit and a whole carcass of a skinned mountain sheep was placed in a hot pit with ashes, wrapped in herbs (ram, nettle), the carcass was covered with earth from above, and it was stewed in its own juice.
Steller called the Itelmens "omnivorous animals that do not disdain even fly agarics and, on the other hand, have colossal knowledge in the field of botany ... Usually they know all native plants both by their names and by their properties."
Krasheninnikov, speaking about the food of the Itelmens, said that they eat roots, fish and marine animals. It is no coincidence that he put vegetable food in the first place, since he saw that with vegetable food "a lack of bread, almost like fish, is rewarded." 164
In early spring, as soon as the snow melted, wild garlic was collected in unlimited quantities - field onions. At the end of summer and autumn, they prepared for future use and ate fresh and boiled tubers of kemchiga, saran, oatmeal, stalks of fireweed, shelomaynik, mutton, "sweet grass". They ate and prepared for the future, freezing, shiksha berries; they ate honeysuckle, blueberries, cloudberries and lingonberries, and in some places bird cherry.
There was a walnut trade, women were engaged in it, leaving for some time in the slate cedar forests; they stocked up nuts for the winter. Plant tubers were more often selected from nest-shops, which were made in the ground by housekeeper mice for the winter. Women dug them out of the ground with special hooks - goats-goats. In general, the collection and storage of vegetable food for the future lay on the shoulders of a woman.
Itelmens ate the eggs of birds - gulls, ducks, geese. They collected 1000 eggs and more per household and prepared them for the winter.
Nettles were used to twist threads, which were used to sew clothes and shoes, and nets were knitted from them. Ropes were made from the bast of black alder. Before the arrival of the Russians, the Kamchadals-Itelmens met with the Koryaks-reindeer herders wandering in the mountains of the peninsula, and in exchange for seal skins they received reindeer meat, winter deaf clothes made of deer fur, shoes, hats and mittens from them. The Koryaks borrowed the dog team from them. There were no mixed marriages with the Koryaks. Kamchadals, who lived south of the river. Ichi, met with the Kuriles and entered into marriage with them. Through the smokers they received pottery, even Japanese, and fabrics. But these connections were poorly established, as storms and strong sea waves in the straits separating Cape Lopatka from the Kuril Islands interfered. And although the language of the Kurils was very different from Itelmen, these peoples understood each other.
Krasheninnikov noted that they waged wars “not for honor or glory or to expand the boundaries of their possessions, since they do not know wealth, glory and honor, but to avenge insults, because of food supplies, but most of all for the girls they could to take wives with less difficulty than voluntarily, for their wives were very expensive. 1b5 There were never quarrels over property or housing, because there was enough land, water, plants and animals for everyone.
Before the arrival of the Russians, the Itelmens lived in clans. Usually, representatives of the same genus lived in the basin of one river or a large tributary. If the family became crowded in one village, then one or two families moved up or down the river and founded a new village. On the-
164 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 207.
165 Ibid., p. 366.
they had no command over themselves, "no one could command anyone." The first information about the structure of the social life of the Kamchadals was reported by the same V Atlasov in the second "tale". The Kamchadals, he wrote, fortify their prisons because “clan with clan often fight; that they didn’t pay yasak anywhere, they don’t have a great power over themselves, only whoever they have in which family is richer, they revere him more. And clan against clan they go to war and fight ... And they have wives according to their urine - one and 2 each, and 3 and 4 each ”Marriage was exogamous. The position of women in the Kamchadal family was privileged: they did not start fights and battles in the presence of women. In addition to fishing and hunting, men were engaged in the construction of dwellings, cooking, rowing and went on boats along the rivers with poles. The woman took part in the processing of fish, gathering, worked at home: she sewed, made thread for nets.
Krasheninnikov and Steller, noting the polytheism of the Itelmens, reported that the god of Kamchadals was called Dussheikhtich. In honor of him, a pillar was erected on the plains, they tied it with a tonshich, and, passing by, they always threw pieces of food as a sacrifice to him. Near such a "holy" place, they did not pick berries and did not kill either an animal or a bird. The god of the sea was represented in the form of a bird-fish and was called Mitg. Pilya-chucha, or Bilyukai, who allegedly lived on clouds with camulas and produced thunder, lightning, and rain, was considered the owner of all animals.
Steller reported that the Kamchadals recognized the evil spirit Kannu. His dwelling was considered a very old alder near the Nizhne-Kamchatsky prison. “The Kamchadals shot at her every year, which is why she is full of arrows from the izna-kan.” Gaech was considered the god of the afterlife, the underworld. The earthquake was produced by Tuil when his dog Kozei shook off the snow.
The legends about Kutkh reveal the history of the creation of the world. The creator of the earth Kutkha first lived in heaven, then moved to earth, where he gave birth to a son and a daughter from his wife. The children grew up, got married and gave birth to a son and a daughter, and so gradually Kamchatka was populated. Kutkha, his wife and children wore a dress sewn from leaves, ate birch and tall bark, there were no animals at that time, and they had not yet learned how to fish. Kutkha invented the boat, and the second son of Kutkha invented a way to knit nettle nets and catch fish, he also created animals and began to sew warm fur clothes.
Kamchadals “felt neither fear, nor respect, nor love for the creator and believed that everything on earth could be arranged much better, that happiness or misfortune does not come from God, but everything depends on man; believed that in life on earth everything gradually becomes worse and everything becomes smaller. 166
The concept of good and bad among Kamchadals was peculiar: everything that a person needs and likes is virtuous; everything that is not pleasant and scares away is harmful. The Kamchadals considered boredom and melancholy to be the greatest sin and even preferred death to them. The mortal sin for them was the salvation of drowning or covered with snow, climbing volcanoes. Swearing at sour fish, boiling the meat of various animals and fish in one pot, scraping snow from shoes with a knife was also considered a sin.
Holidays and religious ceremonies were honored to ensure hunting and fishing - whale and bear holidays. Their most holiday was the autumn holiday, which ended with “purification” - passing through hoops of birch twigs.
The discrepancy in the nomenclature of mythological creatures and the big difference in the vocabulary of different groups of Kamchadals show that the Kamchadals - apparently
166 Ibid., p. 410.
dimomu, a conglomeration of tribes and peoples who came to Kamchatka from different directions and at different times. Rapprochement between individual groups of peoples already took place in Kamchatka due to its isolated position among the vast expanses of the sea.
At the very end of the world, on the road from Asia to America, the Aleuts lived - tribes related in language to the Eskimos.
The Aleuts have long lived on the Alaska Peninsula and on the Aleutian Islands. When Vitus Bering discovered the Commander Islands in 1741, they were uninhabited. Nevertheless, the Aleuts have their own name for the Commander Islands - Tanamas, which means "our land". The Aleuts are an island people who lived in close contact with the sea and received from it everything necessary for life. The main occupation of the Aleuts was marine hunting, which supplied them with food and clothing. In a tense struggle for existence in harsh natural conditions, the Aleuts developed in themselves stamina, courage, courage and dexterity, the ability to withstand the elements in any storm. They were famous as brave, fearless sailors. Endurance, endurance and patience are the main features of their character.
I. E. Veniaminov suggested that “the population of the Aleuts in the best of times extended to 25,000 people,” others believe that there were only 12-15 thousand Aleuts.
The Aleuts built their settlements on the shores of the islands. The villages, as a rule, were small - five to eight yurts each. There were several villages on the large islands. The Aleuts had winter and summer dwellings that differed sharply from each other. Winter underground dwelling - Ulyagamakh - has always been common, large. The buildings were oriented in the direction of the winds blowing mainly from east to west. Ulyagamakh looked like a barn, divided into chambers for each family. Usually related families lived in such a dwelling. Some families made special closets inside the wall, where they placed their children or kept their property and food. In summer, the families of the Aleuts moved to live in small barracks - beehives, which served to store fishing tools and household utensils. I. E. Veniaminov noted at one time that “all the wealth of the Aleut consisted in a yurt, a kayak, a park and a kamleika.”
The most necessary items in the life of the Aleuts were kayaks and harpoons. Previously, they had a large 12-oared kayak (ulukhtakh) for collective hunting at sea with a double leather cover, on which 6-8-12 sea lion skins were used, and a kayak (ekyakh), unmatched in seaworthiness, with one hatch, on which usually hunter and went hunting at sea. Kayaks with two hatches were used to train boys in sea hunting; kayaks with three hatches are a later invention. The frames for the kayaks were made by men, and the skins for them were cut and sewn collectively by women.
Gearing up for hunting at sea, the Aleuts put on a kamleika with a hood sewn from sea lion guts over a warm parka made of bird skins. From one gut of a great sea lion came out two kamlikas for adults. In inclement weather, a second kamleyka, made of seal skin, and the same trousers were worn over the sea lion kamleika. Torbazas were worn on the legs, sewn from the skin of various animals: the tops were made from the skin of a seal, the front was made from the skin of seals, and the soles were made from the skin of a sea lion. A wooden hat with an elongated beak-like front part was put on the head to protect against wind and splashes. Sitting in a kayak in such a suit, the hunter fitted himself under the armpits with a tight-fitting belt (of that) and
boldly went to sea in the rain, wind and even in a storm. In the event that the kayak with the hunter overturned, he put it in place with a wave of his two-bladed oar, and not a single drop of water leaked either through the sleeves of the kamleika or the hood. The hunter could stand in a kayak to his full height, if necessary.
Parkas, that is, warm and light fur coats without a cut in front, were sewn from the skins of puffin birds by the Aleuts. Eagle cradles with plucked feathers, but with a dense downy cover. Clothes and a hat made of bird skins were very light and warm.
Water was carried and kept at home not in buckets, but in sea lions; to store the fat of a sea animal and yukola, dried fish, they also used bladders and stomachs of seals, seals and sea lions. The stomach - sankhukh - of a small sea lion holds 50-60 pieces of yukola, and the sankhukh of a large sea lion, with skillful packing, included 500-600 pieces. Having finished laying the yukola, the air was sucked out of the sankhukh and the neck was tightly tied with a strap. In such a vessel, yukola was preserved and did not deteriorate for a whole year and longer; the sankhukh protected it from dust, flies, mold and other dirt.
The Aleuts were famous for their exceptional ability to weave mats from sea grass for covering earthen floors in dwellings, baskets, bags for household needs and small bags decorated with ornaments from colored grass, and later from garus. The bone was cut for harpoon tips for hunting sea animals and waterfowl.
The Aleuts ate mainly the meat and fat of marine animals (seal, sea lion, seal, walrus), fish (fresh, smoked and dried - yukola), bird meat and eggs of ducks, geese, gulls, loons, puffins, ipatok. Each household stored two or four barrels of eggs for the winter. The "caviar" of sea urchins, mollusks, seaweed, sea kale, which are found in abundance off the coast of the Commander Islands, was widely used for food. From early spring to the very frosts, wild plants were collected and fed on them, mainly wild garlic, onions, and saran. Bulbs of saran and other edible plants were dug out of the ground with a curved knife, cleaned of the ground, dried on mats and bedding in the sun and wind. Before boiling, the tubers and bulbs were thoroughly washed in several waters and eaten like potatoes. For the future, they stocked up for the winter several barrels of boiled and crushed sarana, tightly packed in barrels, filled with seal fat on top and covered with berries, mainly shiksha. In early spring, the roots of hagelis grass were collected on the hills, they were steamed, which made them tasty and sweet. Hagelis was eaten with sour seal or sea lion fat. Berries (honeysuckle, shiksha, mountain ash) and mushrooms - porcini, boletus, saltwort (unlike other peoples of the north) were collected and stored for future use.
The Aleut society was divided into three groups of classes, as I. E. Veniaminov wrote: honorary, commoners and slaves. Only honorary people had the right to own slaves (kalgs), commoners very rarely had slaves. Kalga could not have his own property: everything he acquired belonged to his master. The price of a kalga was as follows: “... for a kayak and a good parka, they gave a pair of kalgas, that is, a husband and a wife; for a stone knife, for a pair of farts (mats) and for a beaver park they gave one slave each. Each Aleutian village certainly consisted of relatives.
The eldest in the clan (tukkuh) had power over everyone, but when discussing
167 I.E. Veniaminov. Notes on the Islands of the Unalashka Department, Part I. SPb., 1840, p. 165.
most important issues, the foreman convened a court of all honorary members of the family and the elderly. Having outlined the case, he clarified the general opinion, which was considered mandatory for making a final decision. In rare cases, the Aleuts used the death penalty. The most serious and incorrigible criminals were considered a murderer, an evil-speaking chatterer and a betrayer of public secrets. These crimes were punishable by death.
From these legal norms of the Aleuts, one can see how strong the military tension was, the danger of constant internecine wars and skirmishes with neighbors - the Eskimos and Indians, during which almost the entire male population was destroyed.
Women in Aleut society occupied an honorable position, since they had a matriarchy, the remnants of which have survived to this day. Girls were never forced to marry, they chose their own husbands. If the marriage was not successful, the woman was free to leave. Boys were the main labor force in the house. Women ran the household, dressed animal skins, sewed clothes, shoes, utensils, obtained plant food, and stocked up for the winter. Men carried all the burdens of sea hunting, hunting, fishing, made canoes; building yurts was also their business.
The Aleuts had a rich mythology and colorful original art.
Another island chain of the Pacific Ocean, the Kuril ridge, has long been inhabited by the Ainu.
Conclusion
Now you can take a look at the "History of Siberia" within the framework of our volume at a glance.
All the documentary material summarized in the volume clearly refutes the racist views on world history, on the relationship between "small" and "big" nations in it.
The peoples of Siberia have made an original contribution to world culture. Their history is an indivisible and essential part of the history of the Soviet people, and with it the world history of mankind. It begins with the development by man of the space between the Urals and the Pacific Ocean. The initial penetration of man into Northern Asia occurred, perhaps, much earlier than is commonly thought, long before the last, Sartan, glaciation. 20-25 thousand years ago on the shores. In the Angara, Yenisei, Selenga and Lena, communities of Paleolithic hunters already existed, who obtained their food by hunting mammoths, rhinos and reindeer. At the same time, Paleolithic people penetrated here not from any one center, but from various regions of Europe and Asia, primarily from the periglacial zone of Europe, as well as from Central Asia and, probably, from Central Asia - Mongolia.
The development of new areas in the depths of Asia was at the same time the process of the emergence of new centers of culture, including art. This is evidenced by remarkable examples of basically realistic artistic creativity of mammoth hunters, found first at the Military Hospital in Irkutsk, and then in Malta and Buret, the same ones mainly as in Dordogne, in Moravia, on the Don in Kostenki. or in Mezina in Ukraine.
The culture of the Paleolithic tribes of Siberia, as it finally developed by the end of the Ice Age, reveals amazing STABILITY. Here there was no such abrupt turning point as was the "microlithic revolution" in the West. Bypassing it, the ancient tribes of Siberia entered a new, Neolithic, era of their history. This is explained, one must think, on the one hand, by the stability of the ethnic composition of the local population over the millennia, and on the other hand, by the fact that even in the depths of the Paleolithic, and especially at that stage that can be called the Siberian Mesolithic or, with equal right, the Epipaleolithic, there were laid basis for further progress.
At this time, liner guns appear, and then harpoons. The first pet in history was tamed early - a dog.
In Siberia, 4-5 thousand years ago, the descendants of the Paleolithic people, the Neolithic people, were still overwhelmingly at the level of the ancient hunting-gathering and fishing economy. However, this economy could no longer be called primitive. The hunters of the Baikal region have, for example, the world's first Serov bow
reinforced or even complex type. They create a rich set of tools that serve the needs of their hunting industry. They develop an original type of light swinging clothing and, probably, birch bark boats and skis appear. Realistic art, animalistic at its core, is also developing. In a word, a peculiar ethnographic complex of the culture of taiga foot hunters is emerging, which was determined by human life in new landscape conditions: the open spaces of the steppes and tundras of the ice age have now been replaced by taiga, a boundless green sea. At the same time, no less developed and specialized cultures of Far Eastern fishermen and sea hunters appear, and in Primorye and the Middle Amur - also farmers - representatives of a fundamentally new producing economy.
Against the background of this progressive development in the field of material culture and economy, no less important events are taking place in another sphere of the historical process - ethnicity. To the west of the Urals and up to the Yenisei, a group of Neolithic monuments appears as an integral array, which are characterized by such features as pitted and jet ornamentation on vessels and the image of a bird (duck) in art. To the east of the Yenisei in Eastern Siberia, there are peculiar monuments of the Baikal Neolithic culture and other related cultures of taiga hunters. The third large world of Neolithic tribes begins in the upper reaches of the Amur and can be called the Far East, or the Pacific. Within each such region one can trace smaller local subdivisions, which are often interbedded and overlap each other in a mosaic manner. Behind the relationship of groups of Neolithic monuments - archaeological cultures, even more complex relationships of specific ethnic formations can be traced.
Between the Urals and the Yenisei, the process of the formation of the Ugrian-Samoyed ethnic community unfolded. In the East Siberian taiga and the upper reaches of the Amur, that ethno-cultural complex arose that was preserved until recently among the northern Tungus and their counterparts in culture (but not in language) - the Yukaghirs. Groups of tribes lived on the Amur and in Primorye, the culture of which, as evidenced by archeology and ethnography, survived survivably among the Amur tribes of the 18th-19th centuries. - Nivkhs, Ulchis and Nanais. Among the Itelmens and among the settled Koryaks, as well as among the Eskimos, the ancient Neolithic culture lived steadily and dominated until it came into contact with Europeans.
The Neolithic era was thus the decisive ethnohistorical frontier in the past of the peoples of Siberia and the Far East, the period of the initial formation of those ethnic groups and cultures that somehow survived to our time and are in the full sense of the word aboriginal - the initial basis for the further development of the Siberian nationalities.
Later, in the Bronze Age and in the early Iron Age, when stone was replaced by metal in technology, new big changes took place in the economy of a number of Siberian tribes, primarily those who inhabited the fertile Minusinsk Basin, Tuva, the steppes of Western Siberia and the steppe regions. Transbaikalia. Already in the II millennium BC. e. the Andronovo tribes developed a complex cattle-breeding and agricultural economy, the classic example of which then became in the 1st millennium BC. e. way of life of the Tagar tribes in the Minusinsk region. Then pastoralists, mounted nomads with their felt yurts, "animal" style and the first epic poems, with a predatory militant aristocracy at the head, spread in the steppes of Eurasia and Altai. The movements of nomadic tribes and their social system, the ever-increasing needs of the steppe aristocracy for luxury contributed to a sharp expansion of political
sky, economic and cultural ties with other countries, including with the Scythians-Saks and the ancient civilizations of the classical East. At the same time, the expansion of the steppe dwellers, predominantly Iranian in language and culture, began to expand into the areas occupied by the bearers of the ancient hunting and fishing culture. This is how, in particular, the surprisingly “hybrid” art of the Ust-Polui culture arises.
If at first these cultural and political ties were oriented mainly to the west, then at the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. significant changes are taking place. In the steppes of Central Asia, a powerful tribal association of the Huns arises. The expansion of the Huns to the west is unfolding. VI millennium AD e. the leading role in the steppes passes to the Turks. You begin" a new, Turkic, period in the history of Central Asia and throughout the "steppe belt" of Eurasia. The first steppe empires, the first states of nomads, the Turkic Khaganates, were formed, in which new, feudal at the core, social relations occupy a decisive place. The reflection of these events is found in Siberia everywhere where the steppes could roam with their herds - from Khingan and Korea to the Urals.
At the same time, the first states of the Far Eastern tribes arose. In Manchuria, in Primorye and partly on the Amur, first the states of Bohai and the empire of the Khitan Liao appear, and then the even more powerful Golden Empire of the Jurchens (Jin). These states were created at the same time as Kievan Rus, in the 11th-13th centuries, by the Tungus (Bohai and Jin) and Mongolian peoples (Liao). The socio-political evolution and economy of the Far Eastern tribes reach their highest point at this stage.
But everything was interrupted by new events of a catastrophic scale, which for a long time left their mark not only in the history of Siberia, but also in world history. In the steppes along the Onon and Kerulen, Mongol tribes gather under the banner of Genghis Khan. The conquering Mongols rush first against their eternal enemy - the Jurchens, and then against China. The Mongol conquest destroyed the state and culture of the Jurchens. After a stubborn struggle, many East Siberian tribes, starting with the "forest Mongols", as well as the steppe nomads of Western Siberia, ended up under the rule of the Mongol conquerors for a long time.
Later, a new aggression began from the depths of Asia by the Manchu feudal lords, who created in the 17th-18th centuries. its as powerful as the warlike state. The Manchus conquered China and Mongolia for 300 years. They planted in the countries they captured, including Mongolia, neighboring Siberia, their Asian rules and cruelly enslaved the conquered peoples.
Their policy contributed to the deepening of the stagnation in the development of productive forces among those peoples who were not directly under the control of the Manchus. This stagnation in the Far East and in Manchuria was first caused by the heavy blow which was the invasion of the Mongols and the destruction of the state of the Jurchens. The emergence of the Manchu empire did not contribute to the progressive development of even the very homeland of the Qing dynasty, Manchuria. It served only as a source from which the Manchu feudal lords drew human and manna reserves for new conquests. Primorye and the Amur region, which did not belong to China and the Manchus, generally remained aloof from everything that happened outside their borders: the old primitive communal orders and ancient forms of economy that had developed over the centuries were still preserved there.
The rest of Siberia was sharply affected by the negative impact of harsh natural conditions. Reaching a certain level
in the development of productive forces, the population of the taiga and tundra has exhausted its possibilities. It could no longer go further than hunting and fishing, relying only on its own forces and resources, without progressive incentives, without outside support. Here, subsistence farming reigned supreme, archaic social relations existed that did not arise from the primitive community. At best, there was an interweaving of the primitive communal system with elements of feudalism. Therefore, the fact that the aggression of the Manchu feudal lords collided with the powerful counter force of the Russian centralized state and choked at its borders, which stretched already in the 17th century, was of decisive importance for the further history of Siberia. to the Pacific Ocean.
The inclusion of Siberia into Russia had its own deep reasons and corresponded to the historical necessity. As V. I. Lenin wrote, “Russia geographically, economically and historically belongs not only to Europe, but also to Asia.”1 The entire history of Siberia, starting from the Paleolithic, testifies to the close connection between Siberia and the spaces lying west of the Urals , which more connected than separated the peoples of Eastern Europe and Asia. Such contacts begin already in those distant times, when mammoth hunters begin to develop the northern deserts freed from ice. They continue later, when ethnic communities of Finnish, Samoyedic and Ugric tribes are formed on both sides of the Urals. Then the tribes and their cultures related to the Scythians of the Black Sea region, the Sakas of the Pamirs and their cultures spread down to the depths of Central Asia. Over time, a Sogdian colony settled on the banks of the Angara, and the Turkic tribes, according to the chronicle, "heroic" from the Danube to the river. Yellow.
During the time of the Mongol Empire, the Russian lands experienced a common fate with Siberia and at the same time became a barrier to the conquerors who threatened the rest of the world.
300 years ago, this barrier was pushed to the East to the banks of the Amur and the Sayan Range, this time against the new pretenders to dominance in Asia - the Manchu Qing dynasty. And then the peoples of Siberia forever, forever, unite within the limits of one powerful state with the Russian people and other peoples of our Motherland. It was a new path to the future for them, complex and contradictory, but on the whole, from the point of view of a general historical perspective, certainly progressive. Having become part of the Russian state, the peoples of Siberia throughout its territory fell under the rule of tsarism. But at the same time, they came into direct contact with the Russian people, joined the advanced civilization, the high culture of the Russian people, found in it a powerful stimulus for their further development. Their joint struggle for a better future began.
1 V. I. Len and, Poln. coll. cit., vol. 30, p. 326.
Name index 1
Aan Alakhchyn hotun 394
Aan Darkhan-toyon (Khatan Timieriye)
Abaoji Yelü 315, 316
Abd-ar-Rashid 291
Abramov N. A. 355 Abramova Z. A. 11. 31, 49, 71
Abu Dulef 300, 301
Abulgazi 366
Abu-l-Khaira Khoja Mohammed 364, 365
Aguda 326-328, 330-333, 336-338
Agunay 324
Adrianov A. V. 18, 25, 190
Ayysyt-toyon 394
Aiyy-toyon, see Yuryung Aiyy-toyon
Aksenov M. P. 11, 31, 80
Alasun 404
Aldier 384
Alexander the Great 13
Alekseev V. P. 117, 166, 170, 253
Alekseev M. P. 13, 28, 369
Alekseev S. 414
Alihuman 327
Alpysbaev X. 71
Altyn Khans 376
Ambagyan 322, 324
Anahuan 270
Anderson I. 184
Andreev A. I. 5, 14, 15
Andreev G. I. 33, 262
Andreev S. 351
Andreeva Zh. V. 11, 33, 261, 264
Andrievich V. K. 6
Anisimov A. F. 26, 27
Anuchin D. N. 19
An Lu-shan 284
Aolo (Zuyuan) 335, 342
Aristov N. Ya. 19
Arsaan Duolay 393 Arseniev V. K. 22 Arutyunov S A 33 Asada 7
Asu 326, 327, 332
Asimen 329
Atlasov V. V. 416, 417, 421, 422, 424
Attila 303
Auerbach N. K. 25, 26, 63, 69 Akhachu 405
Ahien-shad see Ashina
Ashina (Ahienshad) 267, 269
Ashkenay 363
Bagauddin 19
Badgey 387, 390
Baz-kagan 292
Bai Bayanay 389, 394
Bakay N. 393
Baladata 404
Banzarov D. 380
Baoholi 324, 325
Barberini R. 369
Bars run 302
Bartold V. V. 27, 291, 293, 296, 297,
300, 302, 373, 377, 396
Basandai 363
Batu 364, 365
Bakhrushin S. V. 5, 28, 358, 377
Bayakshin 400
Bekbulat 366, 371, 372
Belov M. I. 416
Belyavsky F. 235
Berg L. S. 73
Coastal N. A. 44, 351
Bering V. 425
Bernshtam A. N. 32, 249, 388
Burro S. 370
Billingshausen F. F. 16
Bilge kagan, see Mogilyan
Bilyukay, see Pilyachuch
Bichurin N. Ya. (Iakinf) 17, 18, 242-252 255, 256, 265-267, 278 279, 281, 290, 291, 300-302, 314, 320, 245, 251 270, 272, 298, 299 ,
Bogdanov M. N. 21, 28
Bogoraz-Tan (Bogoraz V. G. Tan-Bogoraz)
23, 26, 27, 54, 95, 350.
Borowle 384
Boyarshinova 3. Ya. 11, 30
Brunel O. 370
Buddha 290, 372-374
Bumyn kagan 291
Busse F. F. 21, 142
The index includes the names of some genera, tribes and dynasties.
Bushey A. 20
Buyan-biy 365
Byela 328, 365
Bert-hara 390
Waben 334
Wagner L. 370
Vadai 327, 329, 331
Vadetskaya E. B. 11, 165
Weinstein S. I. 11, 32, 227, 253, 286
Waliben 325
Valu 329, 331, 342
Wangenheim E. A. 11.61
Wang Gui 406
Wang Zhaozhou 406
Wanyan 324-326,
Wanyan Xiyin 333
Vasai 329, 331
Vasilevich G. M. 11, 27, 32, 206, 400, 401
Vasiliev V.P. 22, 320, 335, 340
Vasilevsky R. S. 11, 33
Vdovin I. S. 11, 33, 414, 415
Velyaminov-Zernov V. V. 19
Veniaminov I. E. 17, 425,
Verbov G. D. 26, 27, 29
Viktorova L. L. 11, 251
Vitashevsky N. A. 23
Witzen N. 5, 14
Vitkovsky N. I. 20
Vladimirtsov B. Ya. 27, 383
Vorobyov M. V. 33
Wrangel F. P. 409, 410
Wei 266, 269, 270, 279
Wei Wang 337
Weilui 260
Weijun 316
Gavrilov Vasily Brazhnik 369
Gavrilov F. 410
Gaozhengi 315
Gaohou 250
Gaozu 250, 311
Gaocide 315, 317
Gao Yong-chan 341
Gardisi 274 291
Garruth W. E. 38
Gedenstrom M. 16, 17
Georgi I. I. 16
Gerasimov M. M. 25, 44, 46, 56
Herodotus 103, 230, 237
Glusskaya 3. K. 118
Gmelin I. G. 15
Gogolev Z.V. 11, 393
Golubev V. A. 33
Gopat Shah 293, 294
Gorsky V. 23
Gauthier J. W. 370
Grach A. D. 11, 30, 227, 232
Grebenshchikov A. V. 23
Grigoriev A. A. 76, 184,
Grishin Y. S. 213
Gromov V.I. 26, 38.44, 47, 57, 58, 61, 62
Grum-Grzhimailo G.E. 27, 244, 245, 284
Gryaznov M.P. 11, 29, 30, 117, 168, 170, 184, 227, 229, 232, 240
Guangxian 316
Gudulu see Ilteres kagan,
Gurvich I. S. 11, 33 416
Guriev N. A. 153
Guryata Rogovich 13
Davydov D. 215, 216
Davydova A. V. 31, 250
Da Yingzhuang see Yingzhuang
Dalai 333, 335
Dalobian 271
Daoji 337
Da Songlin see Songlin
Da Qinmao see Qinmao
Yeah yanglin see yanglin
Debets G. F. 25, 27, 33, 205
Devlet Giray 372
Derevianko A.P.
Jenkinson A. 370
Jochi 365, 372
Digudey 326-328
Digunai 337, 338, 343
Digunai see Esykuy
Dikov N. N. 11, 31, 33, 93, 212. 221
Dietmar K. 423
Long Durantayi 388
Dmitriev A. A. 20
Dolgikh B. O. 27, 31, 33, 387, 409, 416
Dorbo-Dokshin 384
Dravert P. L. 25
Dulzon A. P. 29, 98, 361
Think L.I. 316
Dongeng 326, 327
Dussheikhtich 424
Dyrenkova N. P. 27
Dyulga Khan 393, 394
Dyakonova V.P. 253, 33, 145, 310
Evtyukhova L. A. 25, 282, 289, 297-299
Edigey 364
Yediger 366, 371, 372
Ekmychey 369
Yermak 5, 10, 13, 19, 358
Ermolova N. M. 262
Efimenko P. P. 58
Zhelubovsky Yu. S. 33
Rui Zong 313, 314
Zabelina N. N. 33
Zalkind E. M. 32
Zaporozhskaya V. D. 55, 200, 296
Zakharov I. V. 318
Zelenin D.K. 26, 27
Znamensky N. S. 18
Zolotarev A. M. 26, 27, 354
Zuev V. F. 236, 356
Zuev Yu. A. 284
Ibak 364, 366, 368
Ivan III 368, 369
Ivan IV 371, 372
Ivaniev L. N. 25, 262
Igichey Alachev 357
Ignatiev I. 414
Idea I. 401
Iyehsit 394
Ilbis kyysa 394
Ilbis Khan 391, 394
Ilteres kagan (Gudulu, Kutlug) 272, 273, 282, 291, 292. 302
Imtugmit 421
Inge 326-328
Yingzhuang (Da Yingzhuang) 315, 316
Yin-zheng 248
Ionov V. M. 23
Yokhelson V. I. 23, 132, 153, 343, 344,
Isunke 380
Ishiha 405-407
Yetmar K. 184
Kalpik 368
Kang Van 404, 406
Kang Zhen 406
Kandangu 410
Kapagan (Mocho, Mojo) 273, 302
Karlgren B. 184
Kartsev V. G. 25, 28, 203
Castren A. M. 17
Katanov N. F. 19, 291, 358
Katkov A. F. 203
Kafarov P. 22, 342, 403
Kashchenko N. F. 13, 61
Kennan D. 7
Kiselev S. V. 24, 25, 29, 30, 159, 168, 184, 187, 191, 261, 276, 297-301
Klements D. A. 18, 19, 21, 23, 386
Kozhbakhty 363
Kozin S. A. 27, 28, 384
KOZLOV P. K. 20
Kozyreva R. V. 11, 33
Kozmin N. N. 28, 296, 377
Komarova M. N. 98> 99, 165, 170, 178,
Kon F. Y. 23
Conrad N.I. 320
Krasheninnikov S. P. 6, 15, 17, 131, 132, 344, 416-418, 421-423
Kreinovich Yu. A. 409
Krivtsova-Grekova O. A. 174
Kropotkin L. A. 21
KsenoTsyuntov G. V. 27
Kudryavtsev F. A. 28
Kuzemenkey 363
Kuznetsov A. K. 20
Kuznetsov S. K. 18
Kuluk-saltan 364
Kupriyanova 3. N. 29
Kurbsky S. 369
Kurbsky F. (Black) 368
Kurmanak 357, 358
Kurov D. N. 371
Kutlug see Ilteres kagan
Kuchum 358, 366, 367, 371, 372, 378
Kydai Bahsy 394
Kyzlasov L. R. 11, 29, 227, 253, 258, 287, 289, 297, 301, 372
KychanovE. I. 11,320
Kalteeki Sabyya 392
Kyuzo Kato 8
Kul-Tegin 20, 273, 274, 282, 292
Kuehner N. V. 27, 267, 280, 281, 297-302
Kupi (Chebi Khan) 272
Landy-Czech 410
Laoshan 247, 250
Larichev V. E. 10, 11, 31, 33, 262, 341
Latkin P. A. 18
Laufer B. 137
Lakha Batyr 390
Levashova V.P. 25, 365
Leventhal L. G. 23
Levin M. G. 8, 33, 347, 354, 409
Lengiel E. 8
Lenin V. I. 431
Lepekhin I. I. 235
Lesner A. 8
Liguanli 249, 260
Likaigou 312, 313
Lilin 260, 261
Limgan 329
Lindenau J. 15, 387
Lipsky A. N. 29. 30, 66, 168, 170
Lee Jin-chung 312
Lomonosov M. V. 6, 7, 370
Lopatin I. A. 132
Lor-uz odyr 356
Luke 326-328
Liao 316, 320, 322-324, 327-334, 338,
341, 379, 430 Latik 369
Magakia 217
Madagou 339
Madygy Törönöy 391
Maykov L. N. 14
Mainov I. I. 23
Makidu 408
Maksimenkov G. A. 11, 165
Malov S. E. 32, 274, 278, 285, 289,
Maltseva N. A. 11 Malyavkin A. G. 320
Mamet (Maxmst) 364
Mametkul 357
Mamrochpagmeet 421
Manduhe 327
Maodulu 326
Marvazi T. 381, 396
Margaritov V.P. 21 261 262
Marco Polo 381, 383
Marx K. 367
Martin F. 18
Martynov A. I. 10, 11, 241
Martyanov N. M. 25
Weight I. 370
Matveev 3. N. 27, 315
Matyushin G. N. 11
Matyushkin F, F. 410
Matyushenko V. I. 11, 100, 170, 179
Mahmet see Mamet
Ma Zhang-show 279
Medvedev G. I. 11, 31, 80
Melioransky P. M. 20, 292
Mercator G. 370
Mehrhart 26
Messerschmidt D. G. 14, 187
Metelius Scipio 233
Middendorf A. F. 134, 135
Miller G. F. 5, 6, 15, 16, 357, 369, 395, 411
Milyukov P. N. 369
Min 22, 403, 404, 406, 407
Mogilnikov G. M. 11
Mogilyan (Bilge kagan) 20, 273, 274, 283, 292
Mode 247, 248, 250, 257
Mokjang 323
Moldan 369
Morgan L. G. 26
Mochanov Yu. A. 33, 119
Mojo see Kapagan Mocho see Kapagan Moshinskaya V. I. 11, 29, 234, 354, 355
Moyun-chur 284-286, 288
Murtaza 366, 371
Muhan 270, 271, 281
Myngong 340
Mailaoseli 316
Menghong 355
Myagkov I. 241
Miaosun 325
Nagenne 326
Nanyang 317
Naryshkin V. V. 412
Nasonov A. N. 367
Nahachu 404
Nekrasov I. A. 151, 221
Nelson N. 89, 90
Neryungin 392
Ningyasu 340
Novitsky G. 14. 97, 359
Notulu Shod 267
Noonangmeet 421
Nurkhani 408
Ovchinnikov M. P. 20
Ogloblin N. N. 422
Ogorodnikov V. I. 8, 28 409 417
Ohryzko I. I. 415, 416
Odun Khan (Chyngys Khan) 394
Oyeongcheon 330
Okamoto R. 133
Okladnikov A.P. 7, 8, 10, 11, 25 77 30, 31, 33, 44, 46, 47, 55, 87 88 104, 118, 119, 127, 128, 136, 137 141, 145, 151, 153 196 203 204 207 215-218 221 253 261-264 291-293 295 296 308 310 314 320 345 347 351 383 384 388 390 392, 396, 405, 409, 412
Oksenov A. V. 20
Olebek-digin 384
Omogoy Bai 388
Omollon 390
Orlova E. P. 11
Osmolovsky G. 23
Osol wola 394
Ossovsky G. O. 18
Pavlinov D. M. 23
Pallas P. S. 15, 16
Panichkina M. 3. 65
Panov V. A. 23, 403, 407, 408
Panyady 371
Patkanov S. K. 20, 355
Pekarsky E. K. 23
Peredolsky V. V. 203
Perm Trifon 358
Perfiliev M. 387
Peter I 5, 232
Petri B. E. 21, 25, 26, 60, 65, 383
Petrun V. F. 87
Pignatti W. 19
Pilyachuch (Bilyukai) 424
Pliny 103
Pozdneev A. M. 21
Pozdneev D. 266, 310
Polashu 326
Field B. P. 411
Polyakov I. S. 18
Popov A. A. 26, 27
Popov G. A. 28
Popov P. 23, 317, 403, 406
Potanin G. N. 21
Potapov L. P. 11, 26-28, 30, 274
Potapov R. L. 232
Przhevalsky N. M. 63
Prokofieva E. D. 359
Pronina G. I. 11
Pujiang 328
Torture 369
Peiman 337
Pyatkin B. G. 11
Radlov V. V. 19, 20, 30, 159, 187
Razin A. I. 261
Rashid ad-din 373, 382, 385
Redrikov D. N. 25
Remezov S. U. 5, 14, 365
Riga M. I. 11
Rozov G. 320
Rubruk W. 274
Rubtsova E. S. 33
Rudenko S. I. 8, 30 32 227, 244, 256,
Rumyantsev G. N. 11 32 Rust A. 43 Rygdylon E. R. 185 Rynkov K. M. 26, 27 Ryabushinsky F. P. 23
Sabyryky 392
Savenkov I. T. 18.25, 118
Savinov D. G. 232
Sagay 327, 328
Sagan-Setsen 385
Saliha 334, 338
Salnikov K. V. 179, 238
Sapunov B. S. 33, 74
Sartaktai 293
Sarychev G. A. 16. 351
Sayapin A. K. 221
PorkV. V. 31
Northern Qi 271
Northern Zhou 271
Sedna 54, 550
Sedyakina E. F. 11, 31
Seydyak 366
Sergeev D. A. 11, 33, 347, 420
Seroshevsky V. 24
Siluandi 247
Silakshagmit 420
Xizong (Hela) 333-337
Skryaba V. 368
Slovtsov P. A. 5
Slyunin N. 128
Sungjong 323
Sorokin V. S. 174, 178
Sosnovsky G. P. 24-26, 44, 62, 69, 213, 242, 243. 245, 250
Sohkhor Duoay 392
Spassky G. I. 17
Spafari N. G. 13
Stadukhin M. 412, 415
Steller G. W. 15, 32, 131, 423, 424
Stepanov N. N. 10, 11, 34
Stephen of Perm 368
Stralenberg I. F. 14, 393
Stroganov 357
Saturday 340
Sui 267, 271, 280, 283, 310, 311
Song 333, 334, 338 340
Songlin (Da Songlin) 315
Simatsyan 242 243, 245, 250
Sam YA 317
Seerkeen Sesen 388
Xiubao Shounu 335
Shunko-haan Shuge toyon 394
Syagogmit 420
Xiao Xiong-ning 323
Xiaoxiaoxian 317
Xiaofuli 332
Taizu 404
Talitskaya I. A. 355
Talko-Gryntsevich Yu. D 20 242
Tan 267, 273, 297, 302, 312, 377
Tan-Bogoraz V. G. see Bogoraz-Tan
Tanshihai 252, 253, 307
Tardush Khan 271
Tatishchev V. N. 14, 15
Temujin see Genghis Khan
Tengri 283
Teploukhov S. A. 24, 25, 159, 184, 187
Thiatabit Bootur 390, 391
Toba Way 253
Tobo 270, 271, 283
Tokarev S. A. 26-28, 29, 32, 390, 392
Tokkash 363
TOLSTOE S. P. 183
Thomsen W. 16, 20
Tonyukuk 273
Tokhtamysh 364
Travkin I. S. 368
Tugarinov A. Ya. 63, 123
Tudiji 310, 311
Tuli (Yanhang) 271
Tuluy 339, 340
Fog 247, 248
Tumen 267, 270
Tundalakh 406
Tongtuhe 249
Tygyn 387, 390
Taylor A. 26
Tyumenets V. 387
Tuerey 392
Tyagrul 371
Tian Zhu-cheng 405
Uvarov A. S. 48
Ugunai 325
Ogedei 339, 340, 379, 380
Udabu 339, 340
Ukimay 333
Ulagashev N. U. 27
Ulu (Shizong) 338, 339
Umansky A. P. 303
Uncabil-Khosun 409
Uraev R. A. 241
Uren-Khosun 409
Usun Durantayi Suruksut 388
Wuzhu 334, 335
Ushaty P. 369
Wells G. 94
Uyasu 328-332
Fanshi 328
Fedorov A. 3. 22
Fedoseeva S. A. 11, 39, 119
Firsov Late 387
Fushehu 338
Fengwan 333
Khamzina E. A. 31
Khangalov M. N. 21, 385, 386
Hanlibu 333
Hanpu 324, 332
Khatan Timieriye see Aan Darkhan-toyon
Heihuan 328
Heli 271, 272, 280, 284
Khlobystyna M. D. 181
Khodukin Ya. N. 25, 60
Khomporuun Hotoy aiyy 394
Good P.P. 25, 31
Khramova V. V. 361
Kublai 402
Khudukha-beki 382, 384
Hushahu 335, 339, 340
Hela see Xizong
Helibo 325, 328
Hatt G. 151
Zeitlin S. M. 61
Jin (Golden Empire, Jurchen) 11, 307, 320, 324, 332-335, 339,
340, 342, 375, 379, 405, 430
Jinxing 310, 311
Jin Yu-fu 313-315, 317, 318
Zuorong 312-314, 317
Zongben 337
Zuyuan see Aolo Qibushi 327
Qing 248, 408, 430, 431
Qin Yin-zheng see Qin Shihuangdi Qinmao (Da Qichmao) 315, 318
Qin Shi Huang (Qin Yin-zheng) 248
Qisi Biyu 3 12
Qiqi Zhongxiang 312
Tsevan Rabtan 379
Chagatai 339
Changwenxu 314
Changchun 373, 375, 376
Chebi Khan, see Kupi Chegra 364
Chekanovsky A. L. 20, 59, 60, 400
Chenlin 340
Chernetsov V. N. 25-27, 29, 96, 100, 241, 304, 355
Chernyshev N.A.100
Chersky I. D. 20, 48, 59, 60
Zhang Xingji 313
Zhang Xuan 315
Zhanmoha 338
Zhanqiang 249
Zhidu 326-328
Zhilihai 325
Zhizhi 249
Zhou 247, 271, 283
Zhonghin Yue 247
Zhuchi 339, 384
Genghis Khan (Temujin) 16, 303 339 340, 364, 372, 379-381, 384, 385, 430
Chorbogor Batyr 390
Chubukov Tretiak 372
Chugunov S. M. 18
Chulo Khan 271
Chuluro Selergun 398
Chyngys Khan see Odun Khan
Shabolio (Shetu) 269, 271, 278
Shavkunov E. V. 11, 33, 307, 317
Shalgan 400
Shaman (Samai) 400
Chardin T., de 89
Shakhmatov A. A. 13
Sheibani Khan 364
Shengun 330
Shetu see Shabolio
Shidihuan 328, 329
Shilu 324, 325
Shintavul 399
Shitumyn 325, 327, 329, 330, 341
Shizong see Ulu
Schlozer A. 6
Schmidt P.P. 22
Schneider E. 168
Schott W. 299
Shrenk L. I. 22, 131, 132, 135, 156
Staden G. 369
Sternberg L. Ya. 22, 26, 131, 133, 138
Shenggun 330
Shende 316
Shcheglov I. V. 5
Edgen 401, 402
Eichwald E. I. 17
Elibao 327
Ellay-Botur 388
Engels F. 86, 367
Ergis G. W. 32, 392
Esykuy (Digunai) 341, 342
Yuan 381, 402, 403
Jungwang 329-331
Yunji 339
Yuryung Aiyy-toyon 388, 393, 394,
Yabolak 364 Yaglakar 284
Yalpinma, N. M. 20, 21, 274
Yamgurchey 364
Yankovsky M. I. 21
Yangling (Da Yangling) 317
Yang Zhong-jiang 89
Yanhan see Tuli
Yastremsky S. V. 23
Yash Ak bash 289, 290
Bogoras W. 23, 26
Castren M.A.17
Chavannes E. 271
Fong Chia-sheng 316
Giddings I. L. 350
Jochelson W. 23, 131, 411
LiuVMau-tsai 267, 269-272, 277-281, 283
Maenchen-Helfen O. 267
Messerschmidt D. G. 14
Okladnikov A. P. 8, 221
Patkanov S. 356, 357
Ponosov V. V. 89
Pullejblank E. G. 284, 288
Rafney F. 346, 347, 349
Ralph E. 346, 349
Ruclenko S. I. 8
Shirokogoroff S. 397
Strahlenberg F. J. 393
Teilhard de Charbin P. 89.
Wittfogel K. A. 326
geographic index
Abakan, city 260
Abakan, r. 14, 68, 166, 268, 281, 298, 299, 378
Abakan steppe 19, 190
Abakan prison 15
Avvakumovka 264
Aginsky National District 216
Aginskoe 215
Agitsky town 366
Asia 6, 7, 9, 10, 26, 40, 43, 44, 49, 59, 72-76, 85, 90, 92, 93, 97, 139, 144, 151, 154, 200, 257, 307, 310 , 314, 370, 381, 395, 419, 425, 428, 430-432, 443
Alazeya 409, 410, 411
Alashan 268
Abazin 400
Aldan 33, 95, 119, 120, 122, 207, 209, 387, 401
Alekseevsky settlement 178
Aleutian Islands 23, 91, 154, 425
Altai-Sayan Highlands see Sayano-Altai Highlands
Altai (Altai Mountains) 11, 13, 15-19, 29, 30, 40, 41, 44, 65-67, 69-71, 78-80, 85, 159, 161, 162, 172, 186, 194, 196 , 211, 217, 218, 227, 228, 230-233, 239, 266, 268, 269, 271, 272, 274-279, 281, 282, 284, 288, 296, 302-304, 306, 360, 376 , 381, 382, 429
Altyrsky ulus 378
Altysar ulus 377
Alchuk 324, 325
Alaska 32, 89, 90, 93, 151, 347, 419, 425
Amga 209, 387
Amguem 221, 412
Amgun 401
America 26, 38, 93, 139, 141, 151, 154, 345, 419, 425
Amnokkan 317
Amu Darya 40, 96, 179, 185
Amur 7, 22, 28, 32, 42, 66, 69, 72, 86, 89-91, 94, 95, 116. 126-141, 145 147-149, 153, 156, 252, 264 265 268, 307- 309, 320, 321, 334, 343, 392, 396, 401-407, 429-431
Amur Bay 261, 262
Amur region 21-23, 132, 135, 262
Anadyr Estuary 412, 413
Anadyr prison 416
Anadyr 151, 222, 350, 409, 410, 412, 415, 416
Angara 20-28, 31, tab. 38-39, 41, 44, 45, 47, 49, 51, 56-61, 65-67, 70-72, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 88, 94, 104, 105, 107, 111, 113, 117, 119, 120, 124, 125, 132, 199, 201, 206, 210, 211, 268, 291, 292-294, 297, 387, 396, 400, 428, 431
Angkola see Angara
Andreevskaya parking 96
Andreevsky lake 96, 100
Andronovo 24, 178
Cape Antalya 234
Anuchinsky district 319
Anbian 316, 318
Anyuan 318
Anyang 184, 185
Anyui 401, 412
Aral Sea 249
Argun 213.251, 268
Arktika 38, 39, 64, 76, 95, 127, 343, 346-348, 419
Arctic Coast 348
Artemgres 142, 220
Assyria 230, 233
Astrakhanka 91
Astrakhan Khanate 358
Astrakhan 371
Asuchen 327, 328
Atargan 344, 345
Afanasiev Hill 24, 161, 162, 164
Afontov II, III pl. 38-39, 58, 62-
64, 69 Afontova Gora 18, 25, 44, 62, 63, 65, 68,
70, 71, 78, 79, 85, 105, 119, 203,
Africa 42, 43, 68, 77 Achinsk 71, 377 Lake Ayat 354
Badai 44, 65
Bazaikha 18, 117, 118, 203-205
Baydinskiye caves 296
Baikal 13, 21, 28, 31, 39, 44, 49, 59, 61 65, 72, 94, 184, 196, 206, 210-212, 214, 215, 218, 249, 266-270, 272, 291, 292, 295, 302, 381, 382, 387, 388, 396, 400 Baikal coast 292 Bayraki 381 Bai-Khaka 373 Bactriana 230
Balagansk 31, 44, 60, 292-294 Balagachevo 361, 362 Baltic Sea 103 Baltic 76, 94, 133 Balkhash 268, 284 Baraba steppe (forest-steppe - Baraba)
19, 237, 239, 363, 366, 372 Cape Baranov 16, 347, 350-352 Bargudzhin-Tukum 382, 384 Barguzin 292, 387 Bardakovka 354 Barents Sea 370 Barkul 269 Barlyk 376 Barsovo settlement 18 Barun-Konduika 372
Bateni 24, 25, 117, 170
Bashadar 227
Bashadar barrows 30
Bashkiria 303
Nameless key 87
Bekdegeul 42
Beklemishev 213
Bektemirovskaya site 44 Belaya, r. 31, 44, 45, 57, 58, 65, 79, 80, 84, 86, 151, 221, 222, 412
Beloglazovo 303
Belogorye 359
Beloe, oz. 377
Belarus 78
White Iyus 377, 378
Belkachi 120, 122
Beltyry 161
Berezov 235
Berezovka table. 38-39, 249
Berezovsky region 355
Berezovsky District 355
Berezovsky prison 370
Bering Sea 32, 346, 411-416, 419
Bering Isthmus 26
Bering Strait 46, 89, 90, 95, 151, 207, 346, 352, 419
Beshbalyk 273
Bibikovo 74
Biy-Khem 268
Binzhou 332
Birobidzhan lowland 308
Biryulskoe 44
Biryusa 18, 79, 387
Biryusa B 62
Biryusinskaya parking 79
Blagoveshchensk 9, 89 148
Blagoveshchensky district 308
Near Elbany 29, 240
Middle East 40
Bogdo-ola (Gaochang) 268, 269
Bogtu-yul 361
God's Lake 377
Bokujiang 403
Bolon-Ojal 134
Big, r. 416
Bolshaya Rechka 240
Bolshezemelskaya tundra 94
Big Anyui 412
Big Threshold 377
Big Khingan 21, 268
Bom-Kemchik 291
Boro-horo 268
Bosporus 303
Bohai (Bohai State) 11, 27, 307, 313-320, 337, 341, 405, 430
Bratsk 7, 31, 111, 119, 124
Bratskaya HPP 6, 28, 31
Fraternal Stone 106
British Isles 37
Bugachan 208, 209
Buga-Chuchigay 380
Budulan 212
Buirnur 381
Buret 25, 41, 44-51, 57-61, 65, 66, 68, 70-72, 79, 86, 428
Burinsky district 239
Buryatia 28, 32, 44, 184, 300
Buryatskaya ASS.R 7, 383
Bukhori 324
Bianhan 313
Besteeh 392
Bian 333, 339, 340
Babylon 233
Vagay 237, 366
Vaigach 367
Vankarem 350, 351
Vasyugan 354, 359, 360
Great, r. 416
Great Mangu State 335
Hungary 227, 355
Venyukovo 91
Upper Amur Region 140, 398, 401
Upper Kama region 303
Upper Ob 99, 170, 234, 239-241
Verkhneudinsk 216
Verkhneudinsky district 215
Upper Chemy 99
Upper Amur 89
Upper Vilyui 119, 123
Upper Yenisei 117, 268, 285, 286, 289.291, 360, 372-374
Upper Lena 55, 65, 72, 295
Upper Ob 29, 98, 99, 100, 169, 170, 240
Upper Capital (Bohai; Huiningfu, Shanjin) 316, 333, 335, 337, 338, 342
Upper Tavda 234
Verkholensk 295, 388
Verkholenskaya Gora 17, 26, 31, 44, 60, 65, 67, 69, 80, 82, 83, 88, 105
Verkhoyansky Ridge 401
Byzantium 2/0
Vilyui 28, 33, 95, 119, 123-125, 207-210, 387, 392, 396, 401
Vishera 354, 368 Vladivostok 9, 28, 32, 88 94 141 142, 220, 263, 407
Inner Asia 39
Inner Mongolia 116, 314
Military Hospital 20, 44, 48, 59, 60, 63, 428
Voznesenskoe 138
Voykar town 358
Volga 249, 303, 371
Volgo-Oksky district 104
Volga Bulgaria 305
Vorobyevo 113
Crow River (Kula-ky) 360
East Asia 40, 43, 74, 75, 82, 91.92, 116, 127, 131, 144, 145, 201, 213,
255, 314, 320, 340
Eastern Europe tab. 38-39, 41, 49.59, 76, 96, 104, 194, 211, 251, 303,
Eastern Capital (Bohai) 317, 319, 333,338
Eastern Transbaikalia 212, 216
East Sea 323
Eastern Primorye 264, 314
Eastern Urals 85, 96
Eastern Sayans 117, 268, 289, 372
Eastern Altai 30
East Dan see Dundango East Kazakhstan 228, 232, 286, 291
Eastern Ocean see Pacific Ocean
Eastern Tibet 21
East Turkestan 271, 290, 307
Woju 313
Vychegda 368
Vietnam 74, 92
Weikou 323
Gansu 269
Gaoli see Goguryeo
Gaochang see Bogdo-ola
Garrison Garden 318
Gelgyai 121
Gizhiga 416
Himalayas 40, 71
Kirin 405, 408
Smooth, r. 143-145
Smooth I 144
Glazkovsky burial ground 20
Glukharinaya river (Sangel-ky) 360
Gobi 40, 89, 90, 141, 257, 266, 268,270, 271
Gobi Altai 268
Holland 370
Golygin 421
Mountain Shoria 66
Gornoaltaysk 40-42
Mountain Farms 74, 342
Gorny Altai 30, 227, 266, 282, 286
Gorkoe, oz. 24, 25
Greenland 37, 151, 419
Gromatukha, settlement 148
Gromatukha, r. 148
Guisui see Guihuangchen
Guihuachen (Kukuhoto, Guisui) 268, 273
Goose Lake 216
Gyda tab. 36-37
Guilou 313, 314
Gian see Yenisei
Davydov 388
Dalai Nor 268
Far Eastern Territory, see East
Far East 7, 8-11, 18, 22 27 30 32, 33, 42, 72-75, 80, 87, 90 94 116, 117, 127, 128, 132-134 136 138-141, 144, 145, 148 , 168, 170, 184, 185, 201, 213, 218, 219, 241, 251 403, 408, 409, 429, 439
Daubihe 319, 331
Nine 130, 139
Dezhnev, Cape 411
Delune-Baldock 377, 379
Demyanka 354, 355, 358
Demyansk town 355
Den Terek 373, 374
Derestuyskiy Kultuk 20
Derestuy burial ground 249
Desary, see Yezersky ulus
Jasybay 25
Jebel 82, 96
Dzhezkazgan 183
Jida 214, 216
Dzungaria 267, 379
Dzungarian steppe 19
Dzungarian Alatau 268
Dili see Tyr
Dinan 316
Dingli 316, 318
Doolin 403
Dordogne 428
Ancient Greece 138
Dugin see Tukin
Dunayka 145, 149, 150
Dongbei 307
Dongdanguo (Eastern Tribute) 316, 322, 324
Dongmo 312, 313
Dongning 404
Dongjingchen 319
Dunhua (Jianzhou) 405, 407
Duren 242-244
Dus-Dag (Salt Mountain) 375
Dyndybay 183
Dengzhou 314
Eurasia 57, 74, 158, 165, 187, 217, 303, 429, 430
Jewish Autonomous Region 264
Europe 26, 37, 38, 40, 43, 44, 50, 52, 53, 58, 59, 68, 72, 76, 77, 82, 83, 85, 89. 97, 127, 139, 230, 257, 303 , 428, 431
Egypt 230
Yechersky (Isarsky) ulus (Desary) 377
Catherine's parking lot 100
Ekaterininsky, with. 142
Yelan (Elan region, Yelan province) 325, 330, 332. 337. 341-343
Yelan, R. 324
Elizarov tab. 38-39.
Elovka 186
Emder-wash 355
Enzyayam ("big river"), see Yenisei
Yenisei 7, 11, 13, 14, 18, 28, 29, 32, tab. 38-39, 40, 41, 44, 59, 61, 63, 65-68, 70, 72, 76, 79, 80, 85, 94, 95, 104, 105, 116-119, 123, 159, 162, 165 166 168-170 172 177 178 180 183-187 189 191 194 196 203-205 217 241 249 257 258 260 261 274 275 285 , 291, 296, 297-299, 302, 359, 360, 361, 370, 373, 377, 378, 395, 396, 400, 428, 429
Yeniseysk 361, 387
Yenisei Territory 71, 116
Yenisei Ridge 117
Yepanchi yurts 366
Ermolaevsky settlement 117, 203
Yellow (Huanhe), r. 140, 211, 215, 268-270, 321, 333, 339, 431
Zhehe 184 Zhigalovo 292 Zhigansk 125-127, 387 Zhirkov 125 Crane River (Karalky) 360
Transbaikalia 11, 13, 15, 17, 20, 73, 82, 83, 86, 88, 116, 145, 184, 185, 210-218, 232, 239, 242, 243, 245, 246, 250, 252, 253 , 256, 261, 307, 379, 380, 381, 385, 386, 395, 396, 402, 429
Transbaikal region 215
Zabochka-Kokorevo I 64
Zavolochye 368
Zavyalova, Fr. 344
Zadvizhensk 249
Zaysan 268
Zaysanovka 143, 144
Western Europe 13, 26, 49, 58, 76, 87,
Western Mongolia 27, 244, 245, 284
Western Transbaikalia 213, 216
Western Baikal 295
Western Priobye 304,
Western Urals 40
West Siberian forest-steppe 303, 304
West Siberian region 96
Western Sayans 268, 271, 274, 289
Western Altai 269, 272, 274
Western Kazakhstan 178
Western ulus (Siberian Khanate) 365
Arctic 63
Zarubino 83, 381, 384
Zauralie 233, 237-239, 353, 367-371
Zeya Valley 42
Zeya-Bureya lowland. Zeya 41, 43, 145, 148, 308, 392
Golden Horde 364
Ivanovka 142
Ivanovo 249
Oriole 31, 215, 250
Ivolginskoe, with. 216
Ivolginsk settlement, see Nizhne-Ivolginsk settlement
Lime Hill 342
Izirsu 377
Izykh Chaatas 258
Yilanzhou 373, 375
Iligulun 328
Ilim 31, 387
Ilm Pad 20, 242, 243, 245
Ilyushkina Sopka 74
Iman 308 38-39, 94,392,400, 409, 410
Indian Ocean 233
Indochina 75, 265
Indonesia 268, 270, 272, 273
Ipalaigai 359
Ipiutak burial ground 347
Iran (Persia) 230, 233, 270, 277, 295
Iranian Plateau 40
Irkutsk 9, 17, 20, 41, 44, 48, 59, 60, 65 88 115, 124, 196, 294, 428
Irkutsk province. 17
Irkutsk HPP 28, 3.8, 25.97, 234 237, 241, 249 268, 285, 354, 355, 358, 359, 36 11, 364-369, 372, 378
Irtysh Black 268
Isarsky ulus, see Yezersky ulus
Iset 237, 238
Isker 19, 358
Spain 38
Issyk-Kul 268
Iturup 157, 158
Ityrkhei 296
Ichchilyakh 208, 209
Ishim 237, 364, 378
Ishim forest-steppe 237 Iyus 16, 379
Kaa-Khem see Upper Yenisei Kaa-Khem district 275
Kabansk 292, 381
Kazan Khanate 358, 364, 371
Kazan 371
Kazakhstan 77, 172, 173, 179 180 183, 185, 217. 227
Cossack 31
Kazylgan 229
Kailin 335
Kayrak-Kumy 40
Kaiyuan 403, 404, 407
Kalashnikova pad 31
Kalgan 251
Kama 353, 354, 357, 368
Stone islands 20, 31, 113
Stone Log 182
Stone Cape 153
Pebbles 221
Kamchatka (Kamchatka Peninsula) 11, 15, 17, 23, 28, 33, 93, 128, 129, 132, 134, 153, 154, 156, 343, 344, 346, 410, 412, 415, 416, 417, 421 , 422, 424, 425
Kamchatka, r. 93, 343, 416, 421
Kamchatka region 33
Isthmus of Kamchatka 416
Kamyshta 166
Canadian Arctic Archipelago 419
Cancor 357
Kanchalan 412
Kaochan (Turfan) 268, 269, 271
Kapova cave 40
Karaga 416
Karakorum (Kharahorin) 20, 260, 379
Kara-Kum (Black Sands, Heisha) 272.273
Kara-Kurgan 190, 195
Karal-ky see Crane River Karasuk 24, 162, 167, 182
Karasuk 111 161, 164
Kara-hol 274
Karachin town 366
Karashar 267, 268
Karelia 104, 125
Kara Sea 367, 370
Karypospat-urdat-vosh 355
Kasatka 157
Kasatka Coast 157
Caspian Sea 249, 381
Katanga, see Tunguska Middle, Tunguska Lower
Katun 44, 78, 79, 268
Kashgar 268
Kashlyk (Siberia) 364, 365, 366, 371
Kem-Yenisei see Yenisei Kemerovo 9
Kemerovo region. 258
Kergedan 357
Kerulen 251, 268, 381, 430 Ket 359, 360, 378
Kievan Rus 430
Kilchu 330
Kiprino 99
Kyrgyzstan 32, 297, 303, 397
Kyrgyz steppe 19
Kirensk 61
Kirovsky, pos. 142, 220
China 1, 41, 73, 89, 233, 242, 247, 248, 250-252, 265, 267, 269-274, 277, 3] 1-3 16, 319, 320, 332, 333, 338-406, 430
Kiya 258, 361, 362, 37?
Knyazhev town 366
Kobdo 268, 376
Goguryeo (Gaoli) 308, 311 314 315, 317, 319, 331
Principality Code 369
Kozlova pereima 96
Kozlovsky burial ground 304
Kokonovskie burial mounds 237
Kokorevo I, IV tab. 38-39, 62-64, 78
Gokju 330
Kokel 255-257
Kolyma 16, 94, 126, 151, 347, 350-352, 409-412, 415, 419
Kola Bay 210
Commander Islands (Tanamas) 128, 425, 426
Komsomolsk-on-Amur (Komsomolsk) 89, 134, 150, 264
Konda 25, 89, 150, 353, 354, 372
Condon (Post) tabl. 38-39, 89, 129,130, 133-135, 137, 139, 150, 219, 264
Konduisky town 21, 379
Konghomjin 330
Copenskoe settlement 297
Kopet-Dag 40
Korean Peninsula 311, 315, 319
Korendo 400
Korea 73, 129, 141-145, 265, 320, 323.327, 331, 407, 430
Kore 315-317, 320, 323, 324, 326, 328,329, 331-333, 338
Kosogol 216, 267, 376
Kostenki I 53, 59, 60, 428
Kosva 354
Kotokel 212
Kochergino 25
Kochetovo 373
Kosho-Tsaidam 273
Kraskino 319
Kraskinskoe settlement 319
Krasnoturansk 187
Krasnoyarsk 18, 25, 44, 62, 79, 95.117-119, 169, 179, 185, 203, 377.378, 381
Krasnoyarsk HPP 28, 30
Krasnoyarsk forest-steppe 204
Krasnoyarsk Sopka 342
Krasnoyarsk Territory 30
Krasny Yar (Angara) 44, 60, 71, 84
Krasny Yar (Ob) 186
Cross, hall. 411, 412
Krivinskoe 24
Crooked key 87
Krotovo, II, VII 100, 170
Round Hill 319
Kruzenshtern, cape 151
Where 41, 218, 294-296
Kudinsky steppe 292
Kulyrge 275, 278
Kuadeeevo 66
Kuznetsk 376
Kuznetsk steppe 271
Kuznetsky Alatau 17, 258, 299
Kuznetsk burial ground 100, 104
Kuibyshevsk (Rubetsu) 158
Kukelevo 33, 264
Kuku-hot see Guihuachen
Kulayka 241
Kula-ky see Raven River
Kulary 366
Kullaty, settlement 120-122, 207-209
Kullaty-Yuryakh, r. 121, 208
Kultuk 20, 153, 154
Kulunda steppe 241
Culegan 359
Kungur cave 14
Kundat-yul 361
Kunkur 212
Cuckoo 354
Kurgan 238
Kurgan region 6, 7, 238
Kurilsk 157
Kuril Islands (Kuril Ridge, Kuriles) 11, 28, 33, 91, 154, 156-
158, 346, 423, 426
Kurile Lake 344
Kurota 30, 161
Kusyantun 90
Kılarsa I 122
Kyrgyz-nur 296
Kytyl-Dyura 392
Cam see the Yenisei Cam-camjut see the Yenisei Kateme 392
Qianzhou 373, 375
Kyakhta 20, 61
Camp Garden 98
Rooks 117, 185
Ladeyskoe settlement 203
Lazovsky district 264
Laiyuan 323
Lalin 403
Lampyl-ky, see Eagle River
Lama, see Baikal
Laptev, sea 38, 71
Lariak 354
Arctic Sea see Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean see Arctic Ocean
Lena 44, 55, 61, 65-67, 70, 72, 76, 77 84, 94, 95, 104, 113, 119, 123, 125-127, 151, 201, 206-209, 211, 292, 296, 381, 382, 387, 388, 392, 95, 396, 400, 401, 409, 428
Lenyanabad 40
Leningrad 9, 16, 94, 204, 380
Leninsky district 33
Lenkovka 31, 67, 79-81, 83
Lop-nor 268
Lawva 234, 354, 368 I Spatula 423
Leulan 249, 444
Lukechen 327
Lailyuhe 332
Liaodong 268, 317, 324, 404, 406
Liaodong Bay 270
Liaoning 404
Liaoyang 313, 322, 324, 340
Lyapin town 369
Lyapinskaya parish 357
Magadan 344, 345
Mayhe, der. 74
Maihe, r. 74, 143, 261
Makarov 65
Malay Archipelago 145
Malaya Derbina 119
Malaya Perm 368
Small Pad 262, 264
Minor Heta tab. 38-39
Small Kopyony 24, 164
Small Anyui 412
Small Yenisei 285, 286
Small Cat 41
Small cape 178
Malta 25, pl. 38-39, 41-52, 55-61, 65, 66, 68, 71, 72, 79, 86, 428
Mammoth Cave 48
Mangazeya 29
Manga see Cupid
Manzurka 381
Manhai, Mt. 218, 295, 296
Mankhai settlement (Mankhai) 295, 296
Manchuria 22, 89, 145, 217, 248, 265, 267, 284, 313, 319, 320, 324, 339, 343, 381, 402, 404-408, 430
Mariinsk 258
Mariinsky district 18
Markhachan 44, 65
Majilin 329, 331
Bear Islands 351, 352
"Bear cheeks", gorge 136
Mezhegey settlement 373
Mezhegey mines 374
Mezin 58, 428
Meret I, II 99
Miass 237, 238
Mussel 230, 233
Milimishihan 327
Minus 218
Minusinsk 18
Minusinsk (Khakass-Minusinsk) depression 10, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25, 117, 159, 165, 170, 184-187, 189, 196, 242, 255, 257, 258, 275, 277-279, 281 , 296-299, 302, 373,
29, 30, 44, 62 172, 176, 181, 204-206, 240, 260, 266, 272, 282, 285, 286, 429
Minusinsk Territory 212, 213, 429
Minusinsky district 25
Mikhailovka 258i 24, 27, 159, 172, 210,
Burial Grounds 98
Mogoytuy 216
Moisenka 161
Moluccas 201
Molchanovo 29, 360
Mongolia 5 20 21, 32, 38, 40, 41, 59, 63, 66 69, 75, 86, 89, 116, 41, 145,
180, 184, 21,1 215, 217, 218, 228, 232, 242 243, 245, 248. 250, 251, 255. 260 266, 267, 269, 272, 274, 281, 282, 288, 289, 300, 307, 311, 313,
372, 373,379, 381, 382, 384, 386, 428, 430
Mongol Empire 385, 386, 431
Mongolian People's Republic (MPR) 44, 89, 215, 216, 251, 273 Mongolian Altai 40, 267, 268, 270,
Moravia 428 Moraika 170 Moscow 9, 369, 370-372
Muscovite state, see Russian state
Mokhovaya, r. tab. 38-39
Mojie 316, 317
Mudanjiang (Khurkha-bira) 316, 319, 405,
Mukden 322, 403
Moulin 407
Munch 120-122
Muslyumovo 249
Mongun-taiga 275, 277
Naa-Khem see Small Yenisei
Nazarov 19
Nayfeld 309, 310
Narym Territory 241, 305
Narym prison 360
Naukan 350, 421
Nakhodka, bay 73
Misunderstandings, oh 151-153
Nerchinsk 13, 212
Nerchinsk district 15
Lower Amur Region 395
Lower Irtysh 305
Lower Ob 11, 29, 96, 97, 232, 234, 241, 303, 304, 355
Lower Chulymye 306
Lower Seredkino 31
Nizhne-Ivolginsk settlement 243, 244, 249, 250, 251
Nizhne-Kamchatskiy Ostrog 424
Nizhnekolymsk 151
Lower Amur 128, 133, 134, 139, 141,
142, 145, 147, 150, 157, 334, 401-403
Lower Tobol 364
Lower Angara 123
Lower Berezovka 212
Lower Buret 44
Lower Kolyma 346
Lower Lena 122, 151
Lower Ob 14, 99
Nikolka 343
Nikolskoye settlement 343. 344
Novaya Zemlya 367, 370
Novgorod (Veliky) 367, 368
Novgorod Land 367
Novgorod Republic 367, 368
Novo-1 rigorievka 249
Novokuskovskaya parking 98
Novopetrivka 33 145i 146, 148-150
Novopetrivka 1, II, 146 149 150
Novopokrovka 150, 310
Novoselovo 176
Novosibirsk 8, 9, 29, 186
New Siberian Islands 63
Nogliki 154, 156
Noin-Ula 20, 242, 244, 246, 249
Noin-Ula kurgans 256
Nonnie 317, 320, 322
Nurgan (Nulukhan, Nurukhan) 403-407
Nurgan Sea 407
Nyaksimvol 234
Nian Shan 268
Obdorsky Ostrog 370
Gulf of Ob 235, 370
Obusin burial grounds 386
Ob 11, 17, 18, 25, 29, tab. 38-39, 44, 94, 96, 97, 165, 172, 177, 180, 185, 186, 190, 234, 235, 241, 266, 268, 275, 303, 306, 354, 356, 359-361, 363, 366, 367, 369-371, 376
Ob-Yenisei interfluve 306
Ovyursky district 289
Oglakhty burial ground 249, 255
Odolin 403
Ozen-Ala-Belig 229
Oymak 373, 374
Oirotia 27
Okinina 384
Windows 380
Okunev ulus 165
Okunevsky burial ground 168
Olekma 387, 396
Olekminsk 120, 125, 209, 392
Olenek 95, 401, 409
Oleneostrovskiy burial ground 210
Reindeer sovkhoz (on Mayhe) 143
Olga, bay 261
Olga, pos. 264
Olginsky district 264
Olginsky, about. 151, 152
Olkhon 292, 295, 296
Om 238, 365, 366
Ongin-goal 268
Lake Onega 125, 127
Onon 20, 212-214, 216, 250, 268, 379, 381, 430
Ordos 61, 116, 184, 185, 227 248, 249, 270
Ordynske 100
Eagle River (Lampyl-ky) 360)ro 400
Orkhon29260 59. 266. 268, 273, 285, 291, 302.373,376,381
Osinovka 73, 74, 88. 91, 143, 308. 402
Aspen Lake 149, 150, 309
Osinovsky hill 73-75, 142
Osinovskoye settlement 87
Otuken 271-273
Okhotsk 416
Sea of Okhotsk 154, 395, 400, 415, 416
Okhotsk coast 11, 33, 151, 153,
344, 346, 395, 400 Eshurkovo 65, 67, 68, 71, 82, 105
Pazyryk 217, 227-230, 233
Pazyryk, r. 227
Palana 416
Pamir 40, 431
Parabel 359, 360
Guy 416
Parthia 230
Pachanga 360
Beijing 23, 314, 339
Pelym 354, 355, 368
Punjab 42
Penzhina 416
Penzhina Bay 415
Resettlement point 44, 203
Perm 249, 368
Persia see Iran
Pershino 239
Sandy, Peninsula 22, 32, 33, 262, 263
Petersburg see Leningrad
Peter the Great, Hall. 32, 90
Petrovskaya 388
Petropavlovsk (Kamchatsky) 134, 153
Pechora 234, 305, 353. 368, 369
Pechora Land 367
Pidengshui 329
Pingliang 268, 269
Written, der. 100, 101
Written, oh 388
Plemkhoz, parking 122
Volga region 184, 358, 371
Podgornoe 24, 241
Understone 297
Dryness 161
Pokrovskoe 120, 208, 209
Polynesia 139
Plc 264, 265
Poland 370
Polar Loberezhye 76
Arctic Circle 95, 125
Pomorie 370, 371
Popelki 264
Popigay 94
Port Bajin 286
Posyet 261
Potchevash 237
Mail see Condon
Cisbaikalia 385
Amur Region 32 33, 72, 92, 116, 127, 129, 132, 135, 137, 218, 221, 261, 264, 340, 395, 401, 402 404 406, 408, 430
Angara region 104, 292, 384, 395, 400
Aral Sea 103, 104, 183
Baikal region 10, 20, 25 27, 31, 44, 71, 76, 79, 80, 82-84 86-88, 95, 96, 104, 105, 107-109, 111, 113-121, 123, 124, 127 , 133, 139 148, 153, 196-198, 200, 201-205, 207-211, 222, 242, 292, 293, 372 381-387, 390, 400, 428
Baltika 76, 236
Priirtyshe 11, 233, 234, 238, 239, 303-305, 366
Caspian lowland 40
Prikamye 305, 357, 368, 372
Primorsky Krai 72, 141, 142, 308, 319
Primorye 21, 22, 32, 33, 73, 87, 88, 90, 93 94 127, 130, 132-135, 141-145, 150 153, 156, 157, 218-221, 261, 262 264, 265, 308 , 309, 314, 316, 319 320, 324-326, 329-332, 337, 340, 341-343, 406-408, 429, 430
Priobye 29, 97, 104, 241, 305, 353, 359, 362, 363
Pritobolye 233
Primorye 239-241, 362, 363
Urals 13, 24, 78, 85, 118, 172, 217, 233, 242, 357, 358, 368, 371, 372
Prikhankay lowland 308
Black Sea 165, 190, 217, 431
Prichulymie 362, 363
Pugangshui 324
Pustozersky Ostrog 370
Pujal 324
Pyeongyoungjin 330
Phusun 218
Panniolin 327
Pyasina 370
Pyatirechye 329
Razdolnoye 88, 90, 402
"Rachevo Settlement" 359 Rome 277
Horn town 370
Russian Empire see Russian State
Russian state see Russian state
Russia see Russian state of the RSFSR 104, 204, 210
Rubetsu, see Kuibyshevsk Rusanova, b. 416
Russian Plain 40 .
Russian state 6, 7, 9, 13, 14, 1о, 18. 19, 22, 23, 28, 30-33 48, 187 217, 305, 310, 353, 367-372, 381, 386, 395, 408, 410, 431
Russia see Russian state
Ryrkapiy 415
Ryutino 111
Saadak-Terek 376
Saadakh yyaabyt 392 Sagli 228, 231, 254
Sagly-Bazhi II (Sagly barrows) 227, 229, 232
Sagly valley 228
Sayn Shand 141
Sakachi-Alyan 136, 137-140, 309
Salbyk 191
Salbyk burial mounds 195
Salekhard I, II 25, 234, 236
Samus, p. 100
Samus I. II, III 98, 100, 101, 169-172,178
Samuska 100
Sangar-Khaya 208
Sanga-Yuryakh tab. 38-39
Sangel-ky see Glukharinaya river
Toboggan Cape 61, 65, 66, 72, 216
Sanwei 404
Sanzhou 332
Saragash 25
Saralinsky district 297
Sargatka 237
Sargol 139
Sakhalin 11, 22, 28, 33, 128, 133, 154-156, 220, 221, 346, 401
Sayano-Altai Highlands (Sayan-Altai, Altai-Sayan Highlands) 117, 159,
166, 170, 186, 266, 270, 274, 275,285, 306, 362, 363
Sayan HPP 28, 30
Sayan prison 15
Sayan (Sayan Mountains, Sayan Range, Sayan Highlands) 14, 17, 18, 86, 165,
172, 252, 258, 266, 271, 285, 287,296, 299, 302, 377. 431
Svirsk 31, 109-111
North Asia 30, 44, 53, 59, 69, 71.76, 82, 94, 116, 121, 126, 127, 141,
North America tab. 38-39, 89, 91,
Northern Europe 26, pl. 38-39, 80.83, 112, 127, 136
North India 40
North Korea 307, 317
Northern Manchuria 14
Northern Mongolia 75, 274
Northern Scandinavia 211
Northern Sosva 25, 97, 234, 235, 369
Northern Yakutia 77, 222
Northern Japan 90, 310
Northern Trans-Urals 367
Northern Primorye 142
Northern Urals 234
Northern Black Sea region 218
Northern Altai 27, 360, 362, 363
Northern Kazakhstan 71, 303
North China 21, 38, 140, 253, 266,300, 307, 339
Arctic Ocean (Arctic Ocean. Arctic Sea) 5, 16, 47, 72,
76, 94, 126, 207, 211, 306, 370, 400, 409-411, 414, 415, 419
Northern Tibet 228 Northeast Asia 7, 9, 10, 22, 26, 33, 46, 73, 93, 131, 132, 150, 151,346, 408
Northeast Tuva 372
Northeast Pomorie 370
Northeast Kazakhstan 304
Northeast China 407, 408
Northwest Asia 20, 367, 370.
Northwest America 132
Northwest Europe Table 38-39
North West India 71
Northwestern Mongolia 21, 286, 296
Northwestern Yakutia 95
Northwest Bohai 316
Saddle, cape 262
Selemdzha 401
Selenga 22, 44, 61, 65-70 72 84 104 106, 206, 211-216, 250, 266-
273, 284, 285, 292, 381, 384 387 428
Selenginsky district 15
Semyonovka 31
Semipyatnaya, pad 261, 264
Semirechye 288, 290
Senkina Shapka 143, 264
Sergeevna 148, 149, 308
Heart-Stone 415
Serov burial ground 31
Siberian 365
Siberian land 369, 371
Siberian Khanate (Siberian "yurt") 13-15, 19, 358, 364-368, 371, 372,378
Siberia, sat. see Kashlyk Cape Sivuy 343, 344
Siglan 345
Sidemi 21, 261, 262
Sikteeh 207, 209
Silla 315, 317
Silgumja 209
Silyaohe see Shara-muren
Sinara 238
Blue rocks 264, 265
Xing Liao 317
xingxiang 328
Xinjiang 89
Xipinghe 335
Shirataki 90
Sireniki 32, 350, 420
Sikhote-Alin 87, 320
Scandinavia 14, 127, 211
Scythia 196, 217
Slavyanka 341
Sobakina, b. 117
Soviet Union (USSR) 5-7, 9, 28, 33, 34, tab. 38-39, 44, 47, 78, 205
Sogd 288, 290
United States of America (USA) 6, 8
Sokolchi 264
Salt lake (Harlon-kel) 66
Sortynya 97
Sosnovka 373
Sosva 354, 359
Sotnikovo 215
Sottinsky Nasleg 121
Spafareva, Fr. 344
Mediterranean 40
Middle Trans-Urals 233
Middle Volga 305, 372
Middle Amur Region 72, 116, 145, 395, 401
Middle Irtysh area 237
Middle Ob 234, 241, 306. 363
Central Siberian Plateau 72
Middle Amur 11, 33, 74, 145, 148-150, 264, 309, 323, 429
Middle Yenisei 62, 64, 79, 116-119, 169, 185, 187, 299. 360
Middle Irtysh 237, 304, 361, 364
Middle Ural 353, 355
Middle Chulym 241, 360
Central Asia 17, 22, 24, 38, 40, 41, 71, 77, 78, 82, 86, 96, 103, 104, 144, 165, 179, 185, 211, 217, 218, 228, 230, 233, 239, 242, 249 260, 266, 270, 277, 290, 293, 296, 303, 320. 376, 386, 428
Central Lena 72, 119-122, 124, 125, 391.401
Medium Ob 25
Middle Capital (Bohai) 333
Sretensk 212
Splices 44
Stanovoy Ridge 401
Starodubskoye II 155, 156
Old Muslim (Tatar) cemetery (Tomsk) 98-100
Old Siktah 122
Arrows 119
Suban 337
Subin 325
Sug Hole 287
Suji 242, 284
Suzuhe, settlement 264
Suzuhe, r. 264
Suifong 88, 136, 143, 261, 264, 324, 326-329, 331, 332, 341, 342, 402
Suiyuan 184, 270
Sulino 249
Sumangin 122
Sungari 72, 251, 308, 316, 317, 320, 322, 324, 403, 405-407
Suruktah Khaya 125
Susuyskaya parking 220
Suchan 21, 45, 73, 142, 145
Bitch 131, 133, 135, 137. 139
Sim (Chirombu) 395
Syr-Daria 40, 185
Syr Chaatas 258
Saganut burial ground 382, 383
Xia see Tangut kingdom
Xianbi 251
Xiande 316
Xianzhou 322
Tavda 304, 353-355, 358, 364, 368
Tagarsky, about. eighteen
Tagar Lake 25
Tagisken 183
Tajikistan 78
Tadush 87, 88. 90, 91, 148
Thailanl 75
Taigonos 344, 416
Taimyr Peninsula (Taimyr) 94,
Talitsky, settlement 71 Tambara 258
Tanamas see Commander Islands Tangut Kingdom (Xia) 333. 338, 339
Tannu-ola 268
Tanyurer 412
Gaowen 403
Tapar wash 355
Tartas 239
Tarukishi 90
Tarja 134, 153
Taseeva, b. 20, 379
Tasty-butak 174, 178
Tas-Khaza 168
Tatar Strait 220
Taui mountain 344
Tashatkan town 366
Tashkent 40, 179
Tashtyk 25, 258
Teletskoye, oz. 376
Tere-Khol 286
Tes 24, 161
Tetyukhe, bay 32, 262
Tetyukhe, r. 134, 141, 142
Tetyukhe (Tetyukhinskoye settlement) 142, 144, 153, 218
Tetyukhinsky cape (hill) 141
Teshik-Tash 133
Tibet 63, 71
Tibetan Plateau 40
Crucible 415, 416, 421
Tiligul 249
Pacific Ocean 5, 9, 16, 33, 71, 76, 91, 94, 96, 145, 154, 343, 409. 411, 414,
415, 427, 428, 431
Toba (Taibo) 309
Toba Wei 316
Tobol 237, 238, 354, 358, 361, 364, 367, 368, 378
Tobolsk 13, 18, 237, 358
Tobolsk District 355
Todaiji 319
Toyon Aryy 392
Tola 59, 266-268, 273
Tologoy 215
Tommot 122
Tomsk 9, 18, 61, 98-100, 170, 172, 178, 179, 186, 239, 361, 376
Tomsk region 29, 360, 361
TOMSK BURIAL 18, 98, 99, 204
Tom 13, 14, 17, 101, 170, 179, 186,
204, 241, 306, 361, 379
Tone tour 365
Torgalyk 375
Toyanov Gorodok 361
"Pipe" 117, 119, 204, 205
Tuba (Ulsa) 189, 281, 298, 299, 378
Tuban ulus 378
Tuva 8, 11, 28, 30, 71, 194, 215, 227-233, 253-257, 266, 267, 269 272, 274-277, 281-291, 372-376, 429
Tugozvonovskoye burial 303
Tukin (Dugin) 270
Tumangan (Tyumen-ula) 142 264, 402, 407
Tumat-taiga 373
Tumnin 401
Tumyn 328
Tunguska Lower 123, 395
Tunguska Middle (Podkamennaya) 123.
Tunka 17, 384
Tunkinsky region 292
Tunkinsky district 383
Tongjiang 323
Tuoi-Khaya 123-125
Tour 304, 353-355, 358, 364, 366
Turgay 361, 362
Turgai burial ground 362
Turkmenistan 78
Turukta 121
Turukhan 395
Turfan see Coachan
Turpan oasis 89
Tuyakhta 227
Donghaejin 330
Tym 154, 241, 359
Tyr (Dkli, Teli) 405, 406
Tali see Tyr
Tyumen region 6, 7
Tyumen Khanate 364, 368
Tyumen 96, 304, 364
Tyumen-ula, see Tumangan
Tien Shan 40, 268, 303
Ubsanur 268, 375
Weighting, r. 221
Uda 44, 61, 216
Uzun-both 190, 195
Uibat 18, 19, 166, 281. 298
Uybat steppe 19
Uibat Chaatas 25, 300
Uyghur State (Uyghuria, Uyghur Khaganate) 286, 317
Ukraine 78, 428
Ukulan 209
Ulalinka 41-43
Ulaanbaatar 61, 216, 268, 273
Ulan-Ude 9, 10, 31, 40, 212, 215
Ulan-Khada 21, 26, 118, 204
Ulsa see Tuba
Ulug-Khem see Upper Yenisei Ulug-Khem district 275, 373
Ulug-Khorum 228
Ulu-Kem see Upper Yenisei
Unga 31, 293-295
Unga settlement 293, 294
Wolba, oz. 125
Walba, parking lot 122
Walbinsky kardal 126
Ural Mountains (Ural, Ural Range) 5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 37, 69, 71, 72,
78, 85, 94, 96, 98, 103, 104, 180, 236, 38. 239. 252. 305. 353, 354, 366-
369, 372, 428. 429. 430, 431
Urilsky, about. 33
Harvest 44, 78, 79
Urumqi 268
Urungu 268
Uriankhai (Orankai) 407
Uryankhai region 22, 27, 244 245
Usolka 379
Ussuri 91, 136, 137, 150, 252, 264 308, 320, 324, 406
Ussuriysk 21, 22, 32, 73, 74 136, 141-143, 145, 264, 318, 319, 341, 342
Ussuri Bay 261, 262
Installation 87, 148
Ust-Aldansky district 121
Ust-Belaya (Angara basin) tab. 38-39, 80, 82-84
Ust-Belsky burial ground (Chukotka) 151, 210, 221-223
Ust-Yerba 178
Ust-Il 213
Ust-Kanskaya cave 41, 44, 71
Ust-Kurenga 97
Ust-Kurengskoe burial 104
Ust-Kuyum 161
Ust-Kyakhta 65
Ust-Maya 122
Ust-Poluy 234-237, 354
Ust-Poluy settlement 234
Ust-Seminskaya parking 44, 70
Ust-Sobakinskaya parking 203, 205
Ust-Talkin 294 Ust-Tesi 25
Ust-Timpton 122
Ust-Udinsky burial ground 31
Ust-Tsilemskaya Sloboda 370
Ustyug 367, 368
Utachen 327
Cliffs 221
Utu-Elga 293, 294
Wuhuan 251
Wushiji 405
Ushkanka 251
Ushkovskoye, oz. tab. 38-39, 93, 153
Uelensky burial ground 347, 349, 350
Fedorovka 249
Fedyaevo 44
Fergana 288, 290
Filimoshki 41, 43
Finland 236, 355
Fominskaya, parking 44
Fofanova 201, 211, 212
France 6, 53, 54, 58
Furdanchen 342
Fuyu 313, 315, 316
Fairbanks 89
Khabarovsk 91, 92, 134, 136, 138, 264. 407
Khabsagay 381
Hai Dongshengguo see Bohai
Haichuan 329
Khakassia 24, 165, 282
Khakass Autonomous Region 25
Khakass-Minusinsk basin, see Minusinsk basin
Khalkha 248, 376, 387
Hamju 330
Khangai 268, 271
Khanka 74, 91, 141, 219, 264, 407
Hara Aryy 392
Khara-Balgasun (Kharabalgas) 20, 302
Khara-Busun 213
Harazargay 292
Haranarin 268
Kharakhorin see Karakorum
Harbin 407
Kharinskaya Sopka 219, 220
Harlon-Kel see Salt Lake
Hariyalaakh 391, 392
Khasan district 319
Hashan 403
Khatanga 94
Khatyn Aryy 392
Khem see Yenisei
Khashkhay 296
Khemchik 268, 287, 289, 291, 376
Khingan (Khingan Mountains) 217, 251, 401, 430
Khinskaya pad 82, 84-86, 118
Hirkhira 380
Khirkhirinsky town 379, 380
Khodjikent cave 40
Hoiningfu see upper capital
Hokkaido 90, 140, 156, 315
Honshu 315, 346
Khorinsk 61
Horo-Yurege 122
Huai 334, 338
Huaihuan 270
Huaiyuan 318
Huaiyang 338
Huanghe, see Yellow. Khubsugul 268
Hulawen 404 Hulan 407
Hooligay 403
Hulyum Sunt 97
Hunan 339
Hungari 138
Hongchun 328
Hunongjiang 403
Khurkhabir see Mudanjiang Hebei 339
Heisha see Kara-Kum
Helan (Helanfu Hailan) 32, 135, 332, 337, 403 ) ^~
Helan, r. 330 Henan 333, 334 Hengtei 268
Caizhou 340
Central Asia 21 38 40, 41, 62, 63, 66, 70, 71, 76, 82 86, 89, 90, 93, 116, 127, 136, 210 211, 215, 227, 228, 232, 233, 248 257 266 267 269 270 272 274 280 281 284-286 288 293 295-301 303 340 376 381 428 430 431
Central Europe tab. 38-39, 43
Central Manchuria 325
Central Mongolia 21
Central Tuva 228
Central Chukotka 94
Central Yakutia 69, 77, 95 123, 388, 392
Central Altai 30, 227
Central Kazakhstan 71, 183, 184 304
Central Tien Shan 179
Jian-gun (Gegun, Kyrgun) 296, 297
Jianzhou see Dunhua
Jargulu 405
Tsigenovsky (Segenutsky) ulus 381
Cyclodrome (Lokomotiv) 31, 115
Tsingalinsky yurts
Ciulatan 405
Chaa-Khol 289, 374
Chaa-Kholsky district 275, 373
Chalaghan 403
Changboshan (Changbaishan) 308, 309, 320
Chaoxian 313
Chapigou 145, 319
Chapel Mountain 381
Chastinskaya 61, 66, 72
Frequent, fall 31, 82, 84-86, 118
Chatyr-Kul 179
Chaun mountain 346
Chaun Bay 412, 414
Chegitun 350, 351
Chekurovka 126
Chelyabinsk 239
Chelyabinsk region 238, 239
Cheremushnik 44, 65, 81
Chernigovka 74
Chernovaya, r. 165, 166, 168, 169
Draft VI 161, 164
Black Sea 217, 249, 303
"Black Sands", see Kara-Kum
Black Iyus 377
Four-pillar, about. 350, 351
Czechoslovakia 58
Zhaozhou 403
Zhen 312, 313
Zhenhua 323
Zhoukoudian 75
Chikayevo 221
Chikoy 44, 242
Chimga-tura 364, 366
Chinyaev settlement 365
Circuo 123
Chirovoe, oz. 221, 222
Chirombu see Sym
Chita 40, 94, 214
Chita region 215, 379, 380
Chichka-yul 361
Chona 123, 124
Chongpyeong 329
Chokh-chur-Muran 77
Chugai Kuz (Zongcai Shan) 272
Freaks 238
Chukotsky District 346
Chukotsky Peninsula (Chukotka) 11, 17, 28, 32 33, 46, 93, 151, 210, 221, 223,
346, 350. 412, 416, 417
Chukchi Sea 412, 413
Chukchi coast 222
Chukochya, r. 415
Chulym 16, 19, 29, 186, 241-258, 359-362, 377, 378
Chulym-Yenisen basin 187
Chulym-Yenisei Plain 62
Churumal 374
Chusovaya 71, 354, 357
Cheongcheonggang 323
Chasty Yag 97
Shagonar 287, 289, 373
Shandong 315, 338, 339
Shanxi 334
Shanjin see upper capital
Shara-muren (Silyaohe) 141, 268
Shelagsky, Cape 411, 415
Sheremetyevo 136, 137, 139
Shidukha 405
Shilka 116, 212, 214, 216, 268, 307, 309
Shilkinskaya cave 116
Shilkinsky plant 116
Shihshit 384
Shishkin 33, 35, 65, 113, 153, 295, 296
Shishkinsky rocks 381, 388
Schmidt, cape 415
Shokhtoy 294
Shuaibin 318
Shui-dada 403
Shuidungou 61
Shunnuzhi 322
Ymyyakhtaah, lake. 121
Ymyyakhtah, parking lot 122
Evoron 130, 140
Edzin-goal 268
Ekven burial ground 347
Ekichuverweem 350
Expeditions, Bay 261
Elegest 373-375
Elygytkhyn 151, 221
Enurmin 415
Erdeni-Tzu 260
South, r. 71, 367
Southeast Asia 40 41 73-75, 91, 121, 201
Southeast Tuva 373
Southwestern Turkmenistan 96
Yugra Land (Yugra) 20, 367, 369
Yuedeyskaya parking 120
South Asia 43, 75, 77
Southern Manchuria 403
South Sosva 355
South Tuva 278
Southern France 49
South Yakutia 123
Southern Transbaikalia 248
Southern Trans-Urals 179, 233
South Primorye 87, 402
Southern Altai 228, 275, 362
South Deer Island 125, 127
Apple Ridge 401
Yaya burial ground 100
Yakitikiveem 94, 221
Jaxart 183
Yakutsk 9, 77, 120-122, 185, 207-209, 388
Yakut ASSR (Yakutia) 7, 11, 28, 31, 76, 116, 119-127, 148, 153, 207-
211, 218, 221, 291, 292, 345, 347, 352, 385, 387, 388, 390-392, 394,
Yakut province. 23
Yakutsk region 393
"Yakutsky vzvoz" 388 I
Yakutsk-Vilyui depression 77
Yalu 320, 323, 324
Yamal tab. 38-39, 353
Yana 387, 392, 410
Yandogai 347
Yanzhan 314
Yanchihe 319
Japan 7, 8, 73, 83, 90, 93, 134, 140, 145, 315, 319, 320
Japanese Islands 90, 91, 132-134, 142, 144, 145, 156, 158, 265, 319, 402
Sea of Japan 87, 141, 154, 307, 317, 323
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Attention! The slide preview is for informational purposes only and may not represent the full extent of the presentation. If you are interested in this work, please download the full version.
The lesson is held in elementary school (Grade 4) after studying the topics: “Our land in the distant past”, “The main activities of the indigenous population of the region”, “Life of indigenous peoples”
Lesson type: iterative-generalizing.
Conduct form: team game “Connoisseurs of history”.
Target: repeat, generalize, systematize the material covered, basic terms, concepts, ability to work with the map. Continue building group interaction skills.
Equipment: PC, multimedia projector, screen, multimedia presentation, cards with letters printed on them, bingo kegs, illustrations of animals and household items of the peoples of the region, local history literature, task cards, map of the settlement of the peoples of the region.
During the classes
1. The teacher names the topic and purpose of the lesson, reports that 2-3 teams are participating in the game, which have come up with names for themselves.
2. Warm up, during which you need to remember the names of the indigenous peoples of the North. Answer: Evenks, Evens, Yukaghirs, Koryaks, Kereks, Chukchis, Yakuts, Eskimos. We check the answers with the map presented on Slide 3.
3. First stage of the game. Teams are given cards with letters printed on them. From the proposed set of letters (see Appendix 1), it is necessary to compose words corresponding to one of three topics: “Animals of the North in the past and present”, “Main occupations of the peoples of the region”, “Indigenous peoples tools”. You have five minutes to complete the task. For each correct word, the team receives 1 point. On the Slide 4 there are pictures illustrating each of the three themes. Each image has a hyperlink to the corresponding Slide (8, 9, 10) with a list of letters. This is done so that other teams can earn extra points during the check of answers by making words on the opponent's topic - one for the correct answer. The BACK button leads back to Slide 4.
“Animals of the North, past and present”
A set of letters: m, a, n, t, o, l, s, c, g, p, r, e, d, i.
Answer: mammoth, rhinoceros, arctic fox, fox.
“The main occupations of the peoples of the region”
A set of letters: o, p, x, e, s, t, l, b, s, a, b, c, i, c.
Answer: hunting, fishing, gathering.
“Indigenous tools”
A set of letters: b, a, g, l, p, y, p, n, k, o, e, m, b, i.
Answer: decoy, bola, spear, harpoon, lasso, bow.
4. Second stage of the game. Each team receives a text (see Appendix 2), finds and corrects errors. The team that completed the work first voiced the task aloud. The rest of the points are awarded according to the number of tasks completed by the time of verification. You have ten minutes to complete the task. In total, you can get 6 points for this task.
“Suddenly, the morning silence of the yaranga was broken by the ringing of an alarm clock. “It’s time to get up,” thought the owner of the yaranga, “because a big hunt awaits me.” That is why today the hostess of the yaranga prepared a hearty breakfast for him: semolina porridge, coffee and sandwiches with cheese and sausage. During breakfast, the radio announced the discovery of a hunt for mammoths. The owner of the yaranga was delighted, because how the hunt goes today depends on what his family will eat. "We need to check the bow, arrows, swords, guns and cartridges - are they all right?" thought the hunter. "Where's my sheepskin coat?" he asked after breakfast. But now all the fees have come to an end. The family wished the owner of the yaranga a successful hunt.”
[Gornostaeva I.V. Morning in a hunter's yaranga // History of the native land: games in elementary school. - Magadan: SMU Publishing House, 2003. - P. 50.]
Errors: 1. The first inhabitants of our region did not use an alarm clock. 2. Semolina porridge, coffee and sandwiches with cheese and sausage were not the food of the first inhabitants of our region. 3. Radio was not a household item of the first inhabitants of our region. 4. The owner of the yaranga could not hear the message on the radio, because it did not exist in those distant times. 5. Ancient hunters did not use guns and cartridges. 6. Ancient hunters did not wear sheepskin coats.
5. Third stage of the game. Historical lotto. The teams are invited in turn to answer the questions that fell on the numbers of the lotto barrel. For a correct answer, the team receives 2 points, for an addition - 1 point. Teams take turns answering questions. On the Slide 6 the order of numbers is presented, each number corresponds to a certain question of our lotto. The teacher's assistant, who controls the presentation, depending on which number fell on the keg, shows the question itself and then the answer to it. (Slides 11 to 40). Icon Sun on the slide with the question leads with a hyperlink to the Slide with the corresponding answer. Icon Flower on the Answer Slide leads back to slide 6 etc.
Historical lotto questions:
1. The material from which the tools of labor of ancient people are made. Answer: stone.
2. Single boat. Answer: kayak.
3. The accumulation of walruses on the seashore. Answer: rookery.
4. Rock carvings carved in stone. Answer: petroglyphs.
5. Multi-seat boat for collective hunting. Answer: canoe.
6. Large animal of the Ice Age. Answer: mammoth.
7. Marine mammal of the order pinnipeds. Answer: walrus.
8. The largest marine animal. Answer: whale.
9. A place to sleep and rest in yaranga. Answer: canopy.
10. A long stick with a bone tip for catching fish. Answer: sharp.
11. Portable dwelling of the nomadic peoples of the North. Answer: yaranga.
12. Light sled, which is harnessed to dogs or deer. Answer: sledges.
13. A lamp in which fat or oil burns. Answer: fatty.
14. The dwelling of the settled population of our region. Answer: semi-dugout.
15. Upper fur shirt among the peoples of the North. Answer: cooker.
6. Final word of the teacher. The teacher awards the winning team and its captain with a diploma, names the grades and comments on them.
Literature
- Gornostaeva I.V. Morning in a hunter's yaranga // History of the native land: games in elementary school. - Magadan: SMU Publishing House, 2003. - P. 50.
- History of the native land: handout for elementary school. - Magadan, 2002. - 26 p.
- History of Chukotka from ancient times to the present day / Ed. N. N. Dikova. - M.: Thought, 1989. - 492 p.
Face to face
Can't see faces.
The big is seen from a distance.
Sergey Yesenin
We examined the reflection of the face of the European gene pool in three mirrors - the Y chromosome, mitochondrial DNA and the autosomal genome. However, even such a three-dimensional mapping will still be incomplete if we do not turn from Europe as a whole to the faces of individual peoples - to the genetic ties of one or another people of Europe with the rest of the European world. Such consideration allows not only to see the place of this or that ethnic gene pool among its near and far neighbors. It gives more - to see exactly how the overall picture of the European gene pool is formed from individual puzzles. Perhaps this will make it possible to discern the paths of history in the addition of this overall picture. For this purpose, the Y-chromosome mirror is most useful: its information content is comparable to that of genome-wide autosomal panels, and the palette of studied populations is incomparably richer.
The genetic portrait of individual peoples against the background of the entire European gene pool is best described genetic distance maps. They show how the gene pool of a given people fits into the general panorama of the peoples of Europe. Based on the totality of haplogroups, genetic distance maps show for a given people how peculiar it is, with whom it is similar, from whom it differs, how far its genetic ties with other peoples of Europe and nearby regions extend.
Genetic distance maps are created like this. First, a series of maps is built - each haplogroup has its own map. Each map is a numerical matrix - a very dense grid that evenly covers the entire mapped space. In each of the many grid nodes (on the maps provided, almost 200 thousand grid nodes cover the mapped territory), the frequency of a given haplogroup in a given geographical point is recorded. Then the group of populations of interest to us (it is called the reference group) is selected - say, the Poles - from which the genetic distances to each node of the grid will be calculated (including the range of the Poles themselves). The average frequencies of haplogroups among the Poles are also taken - and for each point in Europe, the genetic distance from these frequencies among the Poles to the frequencies at a given point on the map is calculated. These data are enough to calculate the genetic distance from the frequencies of haplogroups among the Poles to the frequencies of haplogroups in each point of Europe. These genetic distances are mapped. Then we take, for example, the Serbs as a reference population - and repeat all the same actions with the cards. And we get a map of the genetic landscape showing the degree of similarity of the Y-chromosomal gene pool of the Serbs with the Y-chromosomal gene pool of each European population. And so for any population chosen by us - an ethnos or a subethnos.
However, what to do with the fact that different populations are studied according to different sets of haplogroups? Of course, when constructing genogeographic maps, interpolated values are calculated for each map point, even if there are few control points (directly studied populations). But if we want to most accurately describe the gene pool of all populations using a single panel of haplogroups when building maps of genetic distances, then the panel of haplogroups begins to shrink like shagreen leather. Our team uses an extensive panel of SNP markers (44 main and 32 additional haplogroups, as well as 32 more “recent” haplogroups, as described in section 1.3), and we studied most of the populations of Eastern Europe using this wide panel. But in order to evenly represent all corners of Europe on the maps of genetic distances, at this stage of the study of the European gene pool, this panel, unfortunately, we had to reduce to eight main European haplogroups - E1b-M35, G-M201, I1-M253, I2a-P37, J-M304, N1c-M178, R1a-M198, R1b-M269.
Further research and mass screening of European populations along the sub-branches of these haplogroups, discovered thanks to the complete sequencing of the Y chromosome, will gradually refine these maps. When reading any map, one must remember that this model was created for the amount of information available on a given time slice: both the population array and the haplogroup panel are limited. Therefore, it is important to pay attention not to the details of the relief, but to the most general and stable structures of the genetic landscape.
Maps of genetic distances can be built for all the peoples of Europe. In this monograph, we will present not all, but many - 36 maps of genetic distances from 36 ethnic groups and sub-ethnic groups of Europe, the most important for the rest of the chapters of the book. These 36 genetic landscapes are grouped into six series:
Series 1: Peoples of Northeast Europe(Karelians and Vepsians, Estonians, Komi-Izhora, Komi Priluz, Lithuanians, Latvians, northern Russians, Finns);
Series 2: Eastern and Western Slavs(Central and Southern Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Belarusians of Polissya, Poles, Kashubians, Slovaks, Czechs, Sorbs) ;
Series 3: Non-Slavic Peoples of Eastern Europe(Bashkirs, Kazan Tatars, Mishars, Chuvashs, Moksha and Erzya);
Series 4: in the north of the Balkans(Moldovans, Romanians, Gagauz, Hungarians, Slovenes);
Series 5: South Slavs(Macedonians, Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Herzegovina);
Series 6: Framing Europe(Albanians, Swedes, Nogais).
5.1. PEOPLES OF NORTH-EASTERN EUROPE (SERIESI)
This series includes eight maps of genetic distances - not only from the gene pools of ethnic groups (Karelians and Vepsians, Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians and Finns), but also from individual sub-ethnic groups (Komi Izhma, Komi Priluz, Russian North). Almost all of these maps are united not only by the geographical region, but also by the similarity of the genetic landscape. At the same time, the linguistic affiliation of these peoples is striking in its diversity. There are also Western Finnish-speaking peoples (the Baltic-Finnish branch of the Finno-Ugric languages) - Karelians, Estonians, Finns; and Eastern Finnish-speaking Komi (Permian branch of the Finno-Ugric languages); and Slavs - northern Russians; and Balts - Latvians and Lithuanians. And yet, their gene pools are largely similar. To verify this, consider the entire series of maps - eight maps of genetic distances from each of the eight reference gene pools (Fig. 5.2-5.9). And in order to see the differences between each of the eight maps from the generalized genetic landscape of North-Eastern Europe, we present the average map of genetic distances (Fig. 5.1). Such a generalized landscape was obtained as a result of simple arithmetic operations with map matrices: summing all eight maps (for each point of the map, the values of eight haplogroup maps at this point were summed) and dividing the resulting total map by eight.
MAPPING SIMILARITY WITH THE GENE POOL OF KARELIANS AND VEPS (Fig. 5.2)
The main range of gene pools similar to Karelians and Vepsians (when calculating the “reference” frequencies of Y-haplogroups, along with data on Karelians and Vepsians, a small sample of Izhorians was also taken into account) is clearly outlined geographically (Fig. 5.2). The most genetically close populations (that is, the genetic distances to them from Karelians and Vepsians are the smallest) are colored with intense green tones. These are genetic distances in the interval 0 We find an important difference between the map of the genetic landscape of the Karelians and Veps and other maps of this series not in the east, but in the northwest. Here, the area of genetic similarity with the Karelians and Veps knows no administrative boundaries and permeates with a “yellow” corridor of populations that are still genetically similar to the Karelians and Veps (0.05 It is also worth noting that the group of “orange” intervals (genetic distances from Karelians and Vepsians d≈0.2), showing populations genetically already distant, but still not completely alien to the gene pool of Karelians and Vepsians, covers a significant part of Fennoscandia, Eastern and Central Europe . At the same time, Western and Southern Europe, the Ciscaucasia, the Caspian region and even the Trans-Urals are genetically as far as possible from the gene pools of Karelians and Vepsians (intensely red tones). MAPPING SIMILARITY TO THE ESTONIAN GENE POOL (Fig. 5.3) Turning to the map of genetic distances from Estonians (Fig. 5.3), we see the same general patterns as on the map of distances from Karelians and Vepsians (Fig. 5.2). However, the area of genetically closest populations, colored in intense green tones (the smallest genetic distances from Estonians in the interval 0 MAPPING SIMILARITY TO THE KOMI-ZYRYAN GENE POOL (fig. 5.4 and 5.5) Komi populations are traditionally divided into two ethnic communities - Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks, although they have a common ethnonym, and the border between their dialects does not coincide with the administrative one. A more southern community is made up of Komi-Permyaks, who now live in the Perm Territory. A more northern community is the Komi-Zyryans living in the Komi Republic (they are often called simply Komi). The origins of the formation of the Komi date back to the 2nd millennium BC. in the area where the Oka and Kama flow into the Volga. In the course of the following centuries, the general area of the Komi steadily expanded to the north, and under the pressure of Novgorodian colonization, it shifted to the east. The Komi settled along the valleys of large rivers, assimilating various groups of an older population - both the Baltic Finns and other Uralic-speaking groups, as indicated by toponymy data. There are nine ethnographic groups among the Komi-Zyryans. One of them is the Izhma Komi (Fig. 5.4), who live compactly in the Izhma region in the north of the Komi Republic (in the basin of the middle reaches of the Pechora and its tributaries) and, unlike other Komi groups, are engaged in nomadic reindeer husbandry, which they adopted from the Nenets . The formation of the ethnographic group of the Komi-Izhma is attributed to the end of the 16th century - not only different groups of the Komi (Vym, Udor) and northern Russians, but also the Nenets took part in its formation. The bulk of the Komi-Izhemtsy belongs to the White Sea anthropological type. Another ethnographic group, the Priluz Komi (Fig. 5.5), lives at the other, southern, end of the Komi-Zyryan range: in the very south of the Komi Republic in the Luza basin and in the upper Letka, where it already borders on the Perm Territory and the Kirov Region. However, despite the geography, the economic and cultural type, and the adaptive type (the Izhma Komi are classified as the Arctic adaptive type), the maps of genetic distances from both ethnographic groups of the Komi-Zyryans are surprisingly similar. A dark green area of minimum distances (the greatest similarity) between both Komi groups is highlighted. They are separated by the population of Russians in the Krasnoborsky district of the Arkhangelsk region, which differs sharply (orange tones) from them, as well as from the main mass of northern Russian populations (Fig. 5.8). With all other northern Russian populations, the Komi show the greatest similarity (the brightest green tones on the map). This is especially clearly seen on the map of genetic distances from the Priluzian Komi (Fig. 5.5), which differ from the gene pool of their southern geographical neighbors and genetically clearly gravitate towards the northern, albeit geographically more distant, gene pools. However, let us not forget that such a genetic proximity of the southernmost and northern Komi groups may indicate the preservation of the unity of only the Komi Y-chromosomal gene pool: it is possible that mainly wives were taken from other ethnic groups, and the influx of male Y-chromosomes from them was small. The possibility of "gender asymmetry in marriages" must always be taken into account when we analyze only one of the uniparental genetic systems - either the Y chromosome or mtDNA. With this exception - the shifts of the smallest genetic distances (bright green) to the east and north - the area of gene pools genetically close to the Komi, colored in light green and yellow tones, is very similar to the landscape found above among the Karelians, Veps and Estonians. This involuntarily brings to mind the works of paleoanthropologists (Khartanovich, 1991), who pointed out that, according to craniological data, the Komi-Zyryans gravitate towards the Karelians, and not to the Komi-Permyaks. However, only a future detailed study of the gene pools of the entire diversity of the populations of the Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks (as well as the Komi-Yazvinians, peculiar in language) will make it possible to accurately determine the degree of their genetic similarity both with each other and with other peoples of North-Eastern Europe and the Urals. MAPPING SIMILARITY WITH THE GENE POOL OF LETHUNS AND LITHUANIANS (Fig. 5.6 and 5.7) On the above four maps (Fig. 5.2 - 5.5), the "reference" gene pools, from which genetic distances were calculated, were the populations of the Finno-Ugric peoples. Now we have maps of genetic distances from two Baltic-speaking peoples - Latvians (Fig. 5.6) and Lithuanians (Fig. 5.7). Linguistically, they no longer belong to the Ural family, but to the Indo-European. However, despite such huge linguistic differences, we again see the same genetic landscape that does not even require additional description. It is closest to the genetic landscape of neighboring Estonians (Fig. 5.3). The only difference between these two landscapes is that the area of populations genetically close to the Baltic peoples narrows as much as possible in the northwest and northeast, remaining wide in the south and thus approaching the shape of a triangle. It is assumed that speakers of the Baltic languages were previously distributed over a much wider area - from the northeast of modern Poland to the upper reaches of the Volga, the Oka basin, the middle Dnieper and Pripyat. Therefore, the coincidence of the genetic landscapes of the Karelians, Vepsians, Komi, Estonians and Latvians allows us to raise the question of the reasons for such a coincidence. There is a change in linguistic affiliation (or Balts, or Finno-Ugric peoples, or both) while maintaining a certain common ancient gene pool. Perhaps there was some more ancient gene pool, the linguistic identity of which we do not even have hypotheses, and it was he who became the genetic substrate that still sets the landscape for the most diverse gene pools of North-Eastern Europe? MAPPING SIMILARITY TO THE NORTHERN RUSSIAN GENE POOL (Fig. 5.8) These doubts and reflections are further strengthened by the map of genetic distances from northern Russians (Fig. 5.8): the gene pool of the heirs of Novgorod Russia completely repeats all the patterns described above. The genetic originality of the northern Russian populations has been firmly established. But it has become a common cliché to associate this originality only with the Finno-Ugric substratum. Therefore, let us note that the map of genetic distances from the northern Russians is still more similar to the genetic landscapes of the Balts - Latvians and Lithuanians, and not the Finnish-speaking peoples. This indicates that future studies of the paleoDNA of the Mesolithic and Neolithic populations may make adjustments to the customary interpretation of the genetic identity of the Russian North simply as a legacy of the gene pool of the Finnish-speaking population. Perhaps we will have the opportunity to see the connection of the gene pool of the Russian North with the Balts, who, in turn, inherited the gene pool of the most ancient population of the periglacial zone of Eastern Europe. MAPPING SIMILARITY TO THE FINNISH GENE POOL (Fig. 5.9) This call for caution in interpretation is also consistent with the most peculiar map of this series – genetic distances from the “most Finnish-speaking” people – that is, from the Finns themselves (Fig. 5.9). Their genetic landscape is not similar to any of the considered ones: we do not see any similarity with the considered gene pools of North-Eastern Europe at all. The area of similar values fits in Fennoscandia, and even then it occupies only half of it: both the easternmost outskirts of Fennoscandia and the vast southwestern part of Norway and Sweden turned out to be genetically far from the Finns gene pool. And only the outlines of the orange area of genetically distant populations (but still not the most remote gene pools) repeat the outlines of the similarity zone on the other maps of this series. Such a pronounced originality of the genetic landscape of the Finns is in conflict with their close linguistic kinship with other peoples of the Baltic-Finnish group (formed historically recently - in the 1st millennium BC) and geographical location - the Finns naturally enter the region of North-Eastern Europe . It is traditionally believed that the peculiarity of the Finns gene pool (expressed, among other things, in the presence of a special “Finnish” spectrum of hereditary diseases) is due to the fact that the population has passed through a demographic “bottleneck”, which led to powerful effects of gene drift. The Finns, as it were, found themselves on the periphery of both the Finno-Ugric and the Scandinavian worlds. Let me remind you that in Andersen, when searching for the palaces of the Snow Queen, the Laplander sends Gerda to the very end of the world - to the Finn. There is nowhere else to go. Thus, a persistent genetic landscape characteristic of the majority of the peoples of North-Eastern Europe has been identified. But these peoples are not united either by belonging to a common language group or by belonging to a common region (the Finns undoubtedly belong to the same region, but their map is different). Then what unites them? Preservation ("conservation") of the gene pool of the most ancient population of the periglacial zone of Eastern Europe? The temptation to put forward such a hypothesis is great. After all, even if we exclude the genetically sharply different (drifted?) Finns from the generalized map of the genetic landscape, and rebuild the map based on a series of seven maps (Fig. 5.10), we will get the same stable genetic landscape of North-Eastern Europe (as on Fig. 5.1), only painted in even brighter tones of small genetic differences. It can be considered as a typical, standard, "reference" genetic landscape of the indigenous population of North-Eastern Europe. Anyone, even superficially familiar with genogeography, will immediately say: these maps are united by a haplogroup N1c-M178. Yes, it is precisely its high frequencies that are characteristic of all the considered gene pools, and the range of these high frequencies forms an arc curved to the north from the Baltic to the Urals. But its frequency is especially high among the Finns (more than half of the gene pool), and the originality of the genetic landscape of the Finns is largely due to the increase in the frequency of this haplogroup. Other peoples of the north of Eastern Europe have frequencies N1c-M178 more moderate. But let's not forget that the cards are not built one at a time. N1c-M178, but according to data on the totality of the main European haplogroups, the frequencies of which vary significantly within North-Eastern Europe. Therefore, the identified zones of similarity and their features are determined not only by the haplogroup N1c, but to the entire Y-chromosomal gene pool. But still, the role of this North Eurasian haplogroup is especially great. Therefore, its in-depth study will allow us to continue the story told in this section. It will not be long to continue: genome-wide studies of the Y-chromosome have already made it possible to isolate haplogroups in the Eurasian area N1c, at least eight geographically confined branches, which have already been screened for a number of Eurasian populations. As soon as the number and range of European populations for which the frequencies of new branches of the haplogroup are determined N1c, reaches a reliable level for creating full-fledged maps of genetic distances, we will update this series of maps by including maps of new branches in the range of analyzed haplogroups N1c and then, I hope, we will be able to identify various migration flows in the genetic landscape of North-Eastern Europe. REVIEWS EO, 2012, No. 1. © S.A. Arutyunov Rec. to: Peoples of the North-East of Siberia. Ainu. Aleuts. Itelmens. Kamchadals. Kereki. Koryaks. Nivkhs. Chuvans. Chukchi. Eskimos. Yukagirs / Resp. editors E.P. Batyanova, V.A. Turaev. M.: Nauka, 2010. 774 p. The book under consideration occupies a special place in the "Peoples and Cultures" series. In a certain sense, it is built on a residual principle: it included those peoples of Eastern (by no means only North-Eastern) Siberia, which do not belong in language to the peoples of the Altai family (Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu groups) and until relatively recently were listed in ethnic nomenclature under the collective name of "paleoasians". Moreover, between many of them (for example, between the Ainu, Nivkh, Aleuts) there is not the slightest linguistic relationship. And in terms of economic orientation, typical specialized fishermen Ainu and Nivkh, sea St. John's wolves Eskimos and Aleuts and continental tundra hunters Yukagirs do not constitute any unity among themselves. However, the arrangement of the chapters on the peoples is simply alphabetical, like an encyclopedia, in this volume there is a path of least resistance. A scientific publication requires a certain logic in the order of presentation, and this logic can be set by both economic and cultural, and landscape and geographical parameters. From my point of view, it would be most logical to start the presentation with the Yukagirs, from them to the Chuvans, then to the Itelmens and Kamchadals. Further, it would be logical to consider the Koryaks, Kereks and Chukchis, then the Eskimos and Aleuts. And finish the presentation with the Nivkhs and Ainu. Moreover, it would be desirable in subsequent chapters to make some references to the previous ones. This would make it possible to present some semblance of a comprehensive description of the constituent segments of the general ethnographic field, and not just a mechanical collection of individual chapters on peoples that are not connected by semantic transitions. The book contains several general chapters. The last chapter, "The Bone-cutting Art of the Peoples of the Coastal Chukotka" (author M.M. Bronshtein), looks more like an appendix; this is an independent and valuable scientific work, but essentially concerning only two peoples, the Chukchi and the Eskimos, and then only one, albeit a very important aspect of their artistic creativity. In order for this chapter to fit harmoniously into that volume, it should have been made twice as large and covered various aspects of folk applied art, and if not all, then at least several of the peoples included in the volume - embroidery, appliqués, experimental carving on other materials. Museum material for these purposes could be found enough. And so the article, although it is of great cognitive value, still hangs at the end of the volume, like a somewhat alien appendix. The three other articles at the beginning of the volume also appear to have been chosen relatively randomly and arbitrarily. Article by N.B. Vakhtin "Languages of the peoples of the North-East of Siberia: the current situation" was written by the greatest expert on the subject, but the author's focus on the sociolinguistic aspects of the situation is annoying. It is clear that discussions about the genetic relationship or non-relationship of these languages would be purely speculative, but a few words about the structural specifics of these languages, about their polysynthetic or incorporating features, common phonetic features would be not only useful, but downright necessary. It should be said about the mutual influence, and about the enrichment, sometimes with very peculiar vocabulary from the languages of the newcomer population, in particular, Russian. There is not a word about the unique character of the Mednovo-Aleutian language, this kind of anti-pidgin. On the other hand, it would be possible to do without mentioning a little-speaking attempt to connect the Paleo-Asiatic languages with Burushaski, especially since the connection between Burushaski and the Sino-Caucasian phylum has long been much more deeply substantiated. Sergey Aleksandrovich Arutyunov - Ph.D. Sc., Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Head of the Sector of Ethnography of the Peoples of the Caucasus at the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences; e-mail: [email protected] Ethnographic Review No. 1, 2012 The chapter "Anthropological Characteristics" (author T.S. Balueva) shows the variability of the physical appearance of different populations of the Northeast, indicates a large role in their formation of the processes of both isolation and migration, but does not raise cardinal racial and ethnogenetic issues. Finally, the chapter "Ancient Cultures of the North-East of Russia and the Ethnogenesis of the North-Eastern Paleo-Asians" (author A.I. Lebedintsev) contains a rather detailed description of the archaeological cultures represented in the region, but all arguments about correlating the origins of the origin of modern populations with them remain, and indeed cannot but remain, in the present state of our knowledge, only very hypothetical. In general, all these introductory chapters, without causing objections on the merits, give the impression of being addressed more to specialist ethnographers than to the general reading public, are written in a rather dry professional language, and at the same time contain mainly a retelling of data of an information and reference nature. As for the head of M.M. Bronstein, then it is indeed excellent, but it is devoted to a relatively narrow topic that is not common to the entire region. Let's move on to the main content of the book - sections devoted to individual specific ethnic groups. These chapters are heterogeneous and heterogeneous. In general, they all, one way or another, perform their task. That is, they give a comprehensive, more or less complete description of each people, its culture, its foreseeable history and current state. These data are quite reliable, although their completeness varies in different sections. There are, of course, minor mistakes made due to oversight, for example, in the "Introduction" on page 13 we read: "Eskimos living in Chukotka, as well as on St. Lawrence Island and the Diomede Islands (USA), are referred to as Siberian or Asian Eskimo group". In reality, firstly, only the Small Diomede (Kruzenshtern Island) belongs to the USA, while the Big Diomede (Ratmanov Island) has always belonged to Russia. Secondly, the population of the Little Diomede, in the recent past and the Big Diomede, does not belong to the Asian Eskimos. They do not belong to the Yupik group, but to the Inuit group. But these are small details, and there are relatively few such errors. In general, the book, even if we take only these 11 sections about individual specific peoples, is undoubtedly useful and necessary, and the reader will meet it with gratitude. After all, until now, about these peoples, and even then not about all of them, it was possible to get a comprehensive idea only from the volume "Peoples of Siberia" in the series "Peoples of the World", and this volume is already pretty outdated. Nevertheless, it is impossible not to note the great heterogeneity of the chapters about different peoples. In my opinion, the sections authored by V.A. Turaev, sections written by E.P. Batyanova (without co-authors), and, no doubt, the texts of O.A. Murashko. Ainy of Sakhalin and the Kuriles (now counted in units), 1800 Asian Eskimos, 500 Commander Aleuts - these are just small local divisions of much larger superethnoi, mostly living and living outside of historical Russia, in other countries (or external possessions) - in Canada, Alaska, Japan, but divisions that have their own special historical destiny, their own linguistic and cultural specifics. Therefore, it would be necessary to give separately a brief description of these superethnoi as a whole, and more detailed information in the specifics of their own Russian subethnoi. This division is not given consistently in these chapters. About the actual Russian ethnic communities of the Ainu of Sakhalin, the Yupik Eskimos, the Bering and Mednov Aleuts, one could tell more fully and broadly, using the newly introduced and completely new materials of B. Pilsudsky, E. Golovko, M. Chlenov and others. A lot of new things could be said about the Itelmens, using the materials of D. Kester more widely (at least about the appearance of modern lyric poetry in the Itelmen language), etc. There are chapters, the high quality of which I would especially like to note. These are the chapters on Kamchadals, Kereks, Chuvans. The identification of these groups as special ethnic groups in general is largely a matter of recent years, and the appearance of such detailed information about them is a great scientific progress. The October Revolution and seventy years of undivided domination of Soviet power on the territory of the former Russian Empire, like any major historical phenomenon, had their positive and negative sides for the course of the world ethnohistorical process. But comparing the current situation of the indigenous northern ethnic groups in Russia, Scandinavia, Alaska and Canada, their languages and cultures, it should be recognized that negative, entropic, Reviews the destructive aspects of these events in Russia, at least as far as the peoples of the North are concerned, decisively prevailed. Quite a lot has been written about this. It is enough to read the works of B. Shishlo and Yu. Slezkin. But these works are not in the bibliography at all, obviously the authors do not know about them. It is not surprising that an unjustifiably apologetic tone regarding the events of the Soviet period often slips through. Sometimes it seems that some parts of the text were written during the Brezhnev stagnation and transferred without changes to the modern edition. In fairness, it should be noted that this remark does not apply to all chapters. In some chapters, the exposure of the atrocities of the communist regime in relation to the indigenous peoples of Siberia is given quite harshly and truthfully, but, unfortunately, not in all. But everywhere, more concretely documented data should be given about the lawlessness that often takes place in relation to the small indigenous population on the part of "wild capitalism" predatory private entrepreneurs and corrupt officials condoning them, about illegally perpetrated harassment, especially in terms of unreasonably low standards catch of fish by the indigenous population, which has always been the main source of their livelihood, about environmental disasters caused by the actions of oil and timber industries For further reading of the article, you must purchase the full text. Articles are sent in the format PDF to the email address provided during payment. Delivery time is less than 10 minutes. Cost per article 150 rubles. Sokolova Z.P. - 2012 Babenko V.N., Voevoda M.A., Gubina M.A., Gyrgolkau L.A. - 2013 BATYANOVA ELENA PETROVNA - 2013
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