Comparison
Comparison
Stylistic device; likening one phenomenon to another, emphasizing their common feature. It can be simple, and then it is expressed in a phrase with words like, as if or as if: “Lazily and thoughtlessly, as if walking without a goal, the oak trees stand under the clouds, and the dazzling blows of the sun’s rays light up whole picturesque masses of leaves, casting a shadow as dark as night over others... "(N.V. Gogol, "Sorochinskaya Fair"), - or indirectly, expressed by a noun in the instrumental case without a preposition: "Onegin lived as an anchorite..." (A.S. Pushkin, "Eugene Onegin"). Often in artistic speech comparative phrases as a result of the use ellipse turn into metaphors.
Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .
Comparison
COMPARISON(Latin comparatio, German Gleichnis), as a term of poetics, denotes a comparison of the depicted object, or phenomenon, with another object according to a characteristic common to both of them, the so-called. tertium comparationis, i.e. the third element of comparison. Comparison is often considered as a special syntactic form of expression of metaphor, when the latter is connected with the object it expresses through the grammatical connectives “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc., and in Russian these conjunctions can be are omitted, and the subject comparison is expressed in the instrumental case. “The streams of my poems run” (Blok) is a metaphor, but “my poems run like streams” or “my poems run like streams” would be comparisons. Such a purely grammatical definition does not exhaust the nature of comparison. First of all, not every comparison can be syntactically compressed into a metaphor. For example, “Nature amuses itself jokingly, like a carefree child” (Lermontov), or the antithetical comparison in “The Stone Guest”: “The Spanish grandee, like a thief, Waits for the night and is afraid of the moon.” In comparison, in addition, it is significant separateness comparable objects, which is externally expressed by the particle How and so on.; a distance is felt between the objects being compared, which is overcome in metaphor. The metaphor seems to demonstrate identity, comparison-separation. Therefore, the image used for comparison easily develops into a completely independent picture, often connected only in one attribute with the object that caused the comparison. These are the notorious Homeric comparisons. The poet deploys them, as if forgetting and not caring about the objects that they should depict. Tertium comparationis provides only a pretext, an impetus for distraction away from the main flow of the story. This is also Gogol’s favorite manner. For example, he depicts the barking of dogs in Korobochka’s yard, and one of the voices of this orchestra evokes a common comparison: “all this was finally completed by a bass, perhaps an old man, endowed with a hefty canine nature, because he wheezed, like a singing double bass wheezes, when the concert is in full swing, the tenors rise on tiptoe from strong desire bring out a high note, and everything that is there rushes to the top, throwing back its head, and he alone, having tucked his unshaven chin into his tie, crouched down and sank almost to the ground, lets out his note from there, from which the glass shakes and rattles.” The separateness of similar objects in comparison is especially clearly reflected in the special form characteristic of Russian and Serbian poetry negative comparison. For example: “Not two clouds converged in the sky, two daring knights converged.” Wed. from Pushkin: “Not a flock of ravens flocked to a pile of smoldering bones, - Beyond the Volga at night, a gang of daring people gathered near the fires.”
M. Petrovsky. Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925
Synonyms:
See what “comparison” is in other dictionaries:
Cognizant. an operation underlying judgments about the similarity or difference of objects; with the help of S. quantities are identified. and qualities. characteristics of objects, the content of being and knowledge is classified, ordered and evaluated. Compare… … Philosophical Encyclopedia
Comparison- COMPARISON (lat. comparatio, germ. Gleichnis), as a term of poetics, means a comparison of the depicted object, or phenomenon, with another object according to a characteristic common to both of them, the so-called. tertium comparationis, i.e. the third element of comparison.… … Dictionary of literary terms
COMPARISON, comparisons, cf. 1. Action under Ch. compare compare1. Comparison of the copy with the original. It's beyond comparison. || The result of this action is named, indicated similarities. Bad comparison. A witty comparison. What is it... ... Dictionary Ushakova
Reconciliation, comparison, juxtaposition, identification, assimilation, parallel. Wed... Synonym dictionary
comparison- one of the logical operations of thinking. Tasks on the syntax of objects, images, and concepts are widely used in psychological studies of the development of thinking and its disorders. The bases for S. that a person uses are analyzed, ease... ... Great psychological encyclopedia
1. COMPARISON see Compare. 2. COMPARISON; COMPARISON, i; Wed 1. to Compare. WITH. Slavic languages with German ones. You lose a lot by comparing with him. 2. A word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another... encyclopedic Dictionary
Comparison- Comparison ♦ Comparaison A comparison by linguistic means of two different objects, either with the aim of emphasizing their similarity or difference, or, in poetry, with the aim of evoking the image of one by naming the other. If the comparison is implicit, we are talking about a metaphor... Sponville's Philosophical Dictionary
A relationship between two integers a and b, meaning that the difference a b of these numbers is divided by a given integer m, called the comparison modulus; written a? b (mod m). E.g. 2 ? 8(mod3), because 2 8 is divisible by 3... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
COMPARISON, I, cf. 1. see compare. 2. A word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. Witty s. Compared to whom (what), sentence. with creativity comparatively, comparing, contrasting whom that n. with whom what... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
English comparison; German Vergleich. A cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarity or difference of objects; with the help of a swarm, the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects are revealed, the signs that determine their possible... ... Encyclopedia of Sociology
comparison- COMPARISON is the operation of comparing several objects in order to determine the degree of their mutual similarity. It is applicable only to objects that have some common feature, considered as the basis of S. In the sphere scientific research WITH.… … Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science
Books
- Comparison of the concepts of isomer and homologue. Functional groups of classes of organic substances,. Table 1 sheet (vinyl). Art. B5-8670-001 Table Comparison of the concepts of isomer and homolog. Functional Class Groups organic matter…
Give me an example of a comparison in the literature?
-
.
- There are 5 ways to compare.
1) Adverbs of manner of action: The nightingale screamed like an animal, whistled like a nightingale (Bylina)
.
2) Creative comparison: Joy crawls like a snail, grief has a mad run (V, V, Mayakovsky)
3) Combination of the comparative form of an adjective and a noun: Below it is a stream of LIGHT AZURE (M, Yu, Lermontov)
4) Comparative turn: Our river, EXACTLY IN A FAIRY TALE, was paved with frost overnight. (S, I, Marshak)
5) Complex sentences with comparative clauses: Golden foliage swirled in the pinkish water on the pond, LIKE A FLOCK OF BUTTERFLIES FLYING TO A STAR WITH FREEZING. (C, A, ) -
- okay, comparison
there will be any if used with as for example
water is like glass, for example - There are 5 ways to compare.
1) Adverbs of manner of action: The nightingale screamed like an animal, whistled like a nightingale (Bylina)
.
2) Creative comparison: Joy crawls like a snail, grief has a mad run (V, V, Mayakovsky)
3) Combination of the comparative form of an adjective and a noun: Below it is a stream of LIGHT AZURE (M, Yu, Lermontov)
4) Comparative turn: Our river, EXACTLY IN A FAIRY TALE, was paved with frost overnight. (S, I, Marshak)
5) Complex sentences with comparative clauses: Golden foliage swirled in the pinkish water on the pond, LIKE A FLOCK OF BUTTERFLIES FLYING TO A STAR WITH FREEZING. (S, A, Yesenin) - This comparison is a comparison. A comparison is a trope in which the text contains a basis for comparison and an image of comparison; sometimes a sign can be indicated. So, in the example, God's name is like big bird(O. E. Mandelstam) God's name (the basis of comparison) is compared with a bird (the image of comparison). The characteristic by which the comparison is made is wingedness. Literary scholars distinguish several types of comparisons. Types of comparisons1. Comparison expressed using comparative conjunctions as, as if, as if, exactly, like and others. For example, B. L. Pasternak uses the following comparison in the poem: The kiss was like summer. 2. Comparison expressed using adjectives in the comparative degree. In such phrases you can add the words it seems, it seems...
- what kind of trope is this - the sixth land was larger than the previous one
- I do not know what it is
- if used with as for example
water is like glass, for example - Around the tall brow, like clouds, the curls turn black. (Pushkin)
The first star sparkled brightly in the sky, like a living eye. (Goncharov)
His existence is enclosed in this tight program, like an egg in a shell. (Chekhov) - And slender reapers with short hems, (comparison) -
Like flags on a holiday, they fly in the wind.“And three, led by a furious, red-hot priest, went dancing around and around. Then the priest, (comparison) - like a big heavy beast - again jumped into the middle of the circle, bending the floorboards.”
Under blue skies
Magnificent carpets,
The snow lies shining in the sun. here the snow is compared to carpetsEyes, (comparison) like the sky, blue; The leaves are yellow, (comparison) like gold
- The forest is like a painted tower (comparison)
Lilac, gold, crimson,
A cheerful, motley wall
Stands above a bright clearing. (I. A. Bunin “Falling Leaves”)Dick, sad, silent,
Like a forest deer (comparison), timid,
She is in her own family
The girl seemed like a stranger. (A. S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin") - Description of the painting by N. P. Krymov “Winter Evening”. I really liked the painting by artist N.P. Krymov Winter Evening. It depicts an unusual winter season in a small village. In the foreground we see a frozen river. Near the shore of the reservoir you can see islands of shallow water, and on the very shore there are small bushes and several small birds. In the background, an excellent master of the brush depicted a winter village, behind which appears a dark green forest consisting of strong oaks and pines. The snow around is a soft bluish hue. You can also see that people are walking home along a narrow path, and in the windows of one of the houses there are reflections of the bright winter sun. This picture gives me a feeling of serenity, calm, warmth, some kind of comfort, even though the picture depicts winter.
- yeah, wait a minute
In vocabulary, the main means of expressiveness are trails(translated from Greek - turn, turn, image) - special figurative and expressive means of language based on the use of words in a figurative meaning.
The main types of tropes include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis (periphrase), hyperbole, litotes, irony.
Special lexical figurative and expressive means of language (tropes)
Epithet(translated from Greek - application, addition) is a figurative definition that marks an essential feature for a given context in the depicted phenomenon.
The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness and imagery. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.
Epithets include all “colorful” definitions, which are most often expressed by adjectives.
For example: sad and orphaned Earth(F.I. Tyutchev), gray fog, lemon light, silent peace(I.A. Bunin).
Epithets can also be expressed:
- nouns , acting as applications or predicates, giving a figurative description of the subject.
For example: sorceress - winter; mother is the damp earth; The poet is a lyre, and not just the nanny of his soul(M. Gorky);
- adverbs , acting as circumstances.
For example: In the wild north it stands alone....(M. Yu. Lermontov); The leaves were tensely stretched in the wind(K. G. Paustovsky);
- participles .
For example: the waves rush thundering and sparkling;
- pronouns , expressing the superlative degree of a particular state of the human soul.
For example: After all, there were fighting fights, Yes, they say, some more!(M. Yu. Lermontov);
- participles And participial phrases .
For example: Nightingales announce the forest limits with their thundering words(B. L. Pasternak); I also admit the appearance of... greyhound writers who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who have no other words in their language except the words not remembering kinship (M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).
The creation of figurative epithets is usually associated with the use of words in a figurative meaning.
From the point of view of the type of figurative meaning of the word acting as an epithet, all epithets are divided into:
metaphorical (they are based on a metaphorical figurative meaning.
For example: a golden cloud, a bottomless sky, a lilac fog, a walking cloud and a standing tree.
Metaphorical epithets– a striking sign of the author’s style:
You are my cornflower blue word,
I love you forever.
How does our cow live now?
Are you tugging at straw sadness?
(S.A. Yesenin. “I haven’t seen such beautiful ones?”);
How greedily the world of the soul is at night
Hears the story of his beloved!
(Tyutchev. “What are you howling about, night wind?”).
metonymic (they are based on metonymic figurative meaning.
For example: suede gait(V.V. Nabokov); scratchy look(M. Gorky); birch cheerful tongue(S. A. Yesenin).
From a genetic point of view epithets are divided into:
- general language (deathly silence, leaden waves),
- folk-poetic (permanent) ( red sun, wild wind, good fellow).
In poetic folklore, an epithet, which together with the word it defines, constitutes a stable phrase, served, in addition to its content, mnemonic function (gr. mnemo nicon- the art of memorization).
Constant epithets made it easier for the singer and narrator to perform the work. Any folklore text is full of such, mostly “decorating”, epithets.
« In folklore, writes the literary critic V.P. Anikin, the girl is always red, the fellow is kind, the father is dear, the kids are small, the fellow is daring, the body is white, the hands are white, the tears are flammable, the voice is loud, bow - low, table - oak, wine - green, vodka - sweet, eagle - gray, flower - scarlet, stone - flammable, sand - loose, night - dark, forest - stagnant, mountains - steep, forests - dense, cloud - menacing , the winds are violent, the field is clean, the sun is red, the bow is tight, the tavern is Tsarev, the saber is sharp, the wolf is gray, etc.»
Depending on the genre, the selection of epithets varied somewhat. Recreation of style, or stylization of folk genres, involves the widespread use of constant epithets. So, they abound " A song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young oprichnik and the daring merchant Kalashnikov» Lermontov: red sun, blue clouds, golden crown, formidable king, daring fighter, strong thought, black thought, hot heart, heroic shoulders, sharp saber etc.
An epithet can incorporate the properties of many tropes . Based on metaphor or at metonymy , it can also be combined with personification... misty and quiet azure above sad and orphaned earth(F.I. Tyutchev), hyperbole (Autumn already knows that such a deep and silent peace is a harbinger of long bad weather(I.A. Bunin) and other paths and figures.
The role of epithets in the text
All epithets as bright, “illuminating” definitions are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness of the images of depicted objects or phenomena, at highlighting their most significant features.
In addition, epithets can:
Strengthen, emphasize any characteristic features items.
For example: Wandering between the rocks, a yellow ray crept into the wild cave and illuminated the smooth skull...(M. Yu. Lermontov);
Specify features object (shape, color, size, quality):.
For example: The forest, like a painted tower, Lilac, golden, crimson, A cheerful, motley wall Stands above a bright clearing(I. A. Bunin);
Create combinations of words that are contrasting in meaning and serve as the basis for creating an oxymoron: wretched luxury(L.N. Tolstoy), brilliant shadow(E. A. Baratynsky);
Convey the author’s attitude towards the depicted, express the author’s assessment and perception of the phenomenon: ...Dead words smell bad(N.S. Gumilyov); And we value the prophetic word, and we honor the Russian word, And we will not change the power of the word(S. N. Sergeev-Tsensky); What does this smiling mean? blessing heaven, this happy, resting earth?(I. S. Turgenev)
Figurative epithets highlight the essential aspects of what is depicted without introducing a direct assessment (“ in the blue sea fog», « in the dead sky" and so on.).
In expressive (lyrical) epithets , on the contrary, the attitude towards the depicted phenomenon is clearly expressed (“ images of crazy people flash», « a languid night story»).
It should be borne in mind that this division is quite arbitrary, since figurative epithets also have an emotional and evaluative meaning.
Epithets are widely used in artistic and journalistic, as well as colloquial and popular scientific styles of speech.
Comparison is a visual technique based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another.
Unlike metaphor comparison is always binomial : it names both compared objects (phenomena, signs, actions).
For example: The villages are burning, they have no protection. The sons of the fatherland are defeated by the enemy, And the glow, like an eternal meteor, Playing in the clouds, frightens the eye.(M. Yu. Lermontov)
Comparisons are expressed in various ways:
Form of the instrumental case of nouns.
For example: Youth flew by like a flying nightingale, Joy faded away like a wave in bad weather.(A.V. Koltsov) The moon slides like a pancake in sour cream.(B. Pasternak) Leaves flew like stars.(D. Samoilov) The flying rain sparkles golden in the sun.(V. Nabokov) Icicles hang like glass fringes.(I. Shmelev) A rainbow hangs from a birch tree with a patterned clean towel.(N. Rubtsov)
The comparative form of an adjective or adverb.
For example: These eyes are greener than the sea and our cypress trees are darker.(A. Akhmatova) A girl's eyes are brighter than roses.(A.S. Pushkin) But the eyes are bluer than the day.(S. Yesenin) Rowan bushes are more misty than the depths.(S. Yesenin) Youth is more free.(A.S. Pushkin) Truth is more valuable than gold.(Proverb) The throne room is brighter than the sun. M. Tsvetaeva)
Comparative turnover with unions as if, as if, as if and etc.
For example: Like a predatory beast, the winner bursts into the humble monastery with bayonets...(M. Yu. Lermontov) April looks at the birds' flight with eyes as blue as ice.(D. Samoilov) Every village here is so loving, As if it contains the beauty of the whole universe. (A. Yashin) And they stand behind oak nets Like forest evil spirits, hemp.(S. Yesenin) Like a bird in a cage, My heart leaps.(M. Yu. Lermontov) To my poems like precious wines, Your turn will come.(M. I. Tsvetaeva) It's almost noon. The heat is blazing. Like a plowman, the battle rests. (A.S. Pushkin) The past, like the bottom of the sea, spreads like a pattern into the distance.(V. Bryusov)
Beyond the river in peace
The cherry blossomed
Like snow across the river
The stitch was flooded.
Like light snowstorms
They rushed at full speed,
It was as if swans were flying,
They dropped the fluff.(A. Prokofiev)
With words similar, similar, this.
For example: Your eyes are like the eyes of a cautious cat(A. Akhmatova);
Using comparative clauses.
For example: Golden leaves swirled in the pinkish water of the pond, Like a light flock of butterflies, it flies breathlessly towards a star. (S. A. Yesenin) The rain sows, sows, sows, It has been drizzling since midnight, Hanging like a muslin curtain outside the windows. (V. Tushnova) Heavy snow, spinning, covered the Sunless Heights, It was as if hundreds of white wings flew silently. (V. Tushnova) Like a tree silently shedding its leaves, So I drop sad words.(S. Yesenin) How the king loved rich palaces, So I fell in love with the ancient roads And the blue eyes of eternity!(N. Rubtsov)
Comparisons can be direct Andnegative
Negative comparisons are especially characteristic of oral folk poetry and can serve as a way to stylize the text.
For example: This is not a horse's top, Not human rumor... (A.S. Pushkin)
A special type of comparison is represented by detailed comparisons, with the help of which entire texts can be constructed.
For example, the poem by F. I. Tyutchev “ Like over hot ashes...»:
Like over hot ashes
The scroll smokes and burns
And the fire is hidden and dull
Devours words and lines -
My life is dying so sadly
And every day it goes up in smoke,
So I gradually fade away
In unbearable monotony!..
Oh Heaven, if only once
This flame developed at will -
And, without languishing, without suffering any longer,
I would shine - and go out!
The role of comparisons in text
Comparisons, like epithets, are used in the text with the aim of enhancing its figurativeness and imagery, creating more vivid, expressive images and highlighting, emphasizing any significant features of the depicted objects or phenomena, as well as with the aim of expressing the author’s assessments and emotions.
For example:
I like it, my friend,
When the word melts
And when it sings
The line is covered in heat,
So that words glow from words,
So that when they take flight,
They twisted and fought to sing,
To be eaten like honey.
(A. A. Prokofiev);
In every soul it seems to live, burn, glow, like a star in the sky, and, like a star, goes out when it has finished its life path, flies from our lips... It happens that an extinguished star for us, people on earth, burns for another thousand years. (M. M. Prishvin)
Comparisons as a means of linguistic expressiveness can be used not only in literary texts, but also in journalistic, colloquial, and scientific ones.
Metaphor(translated from Greek - transfer) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena for some reason. Sometimes they say that a metaphor is a hidden comparison.
For example, metaphor A red rowan fire is burning in the garden (S. Yesenin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with the flame of a fire.
Many metaphors have become commonplace in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention and have lost their imagery in our perception.
For example: the bank has burst, the dollar is walking, my head is spinning and etc.
Unlike a comparison, which contains both what is being compared and what is being compared with, a metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness in the use of the word.
A metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.
For example: a waterfall of stars, an avalanche of letters, a wall of fire, an abyss of grief, a pearl of poetry, a spark of love and etc.
All metaphors are divided into two groups:
1) general language (“erased”)
For example: golden hands, storm in a teacup, moving mountains, heartstrings, love faded ;
2) artistic (individual author’s, poetic)
For example: And the stars fade diamond thrill in the painless cold of dawn (M. Voloshin); Empty skies transparent glass(A. Akhmatova); AND blue, bottomless eyes bloom on the far shore. (A. A. Blok)
Metaphors of Sergei Yesenin: fire of red rowan, cheerful birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky;
or bloody tears of September, overgrown raindrops, lantern buns and roof donuts
at Boris Pasternak's
Metaphor is paraphrased into comparison using auxiliary words as if, like, like, as if and so on.
There are several types of metaphor: erased, expanded, realized.
Erased - a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative meaning of which is no longer felt.
For example: chair leg, headboard, sheet of paper, clock hand and so on.
A whole work or a large excerpt from it can be built on a metaphor. Such a metaphor is called “expanded”, in it the image is “expanded”, that is, revealed in detail.
Thus, the poem by A.S. Pushkin “ Prophet" is an example of an extended metaphor. Transformation of the lyrical hero into a herald of the will of the Lord - a poet-prophet, satisfying him " spiritual thirst“, that is, the desire to know the meaning of existence and find one’s calling, is depicted by the poet gradually: “ six-winged seraph", the messenger of God, transformed the hero with his " right hand» - right hand, which was an allegory of strength and power. By God's power, the lyrical hero received different vision, different hearing, different mental and spiritual abilities. He could " heed“, that is, to comprehend sublime, heavenly values and earthly, material existence, to feel the beauty of the world and its suffering. Pushkin depicts this beautiful and painful process, “ stringing"one metaphor to another: the hero's eyes acquire eagle vigilance, his ears are filled with" noise and ringing"of life, the tongue ceases to be "idle and crafty", conveying the wisdom received as a gift, " trembling heart" turns into " coal burning with fire" The chain of metaphors is held together by the general idea of the work: the poet, as Pushkin wanted him to be, must be a harbinger of the future and a whistleblower human vices, with your words, inspire people, encourage them to goodness and truth.
Examples of expanded metaphor are often found in poetry and prose (the main part of the metaphor is indicated in italics, its “development” is emphasized):
... let's say goodbye together,
Oh my easy youth!
Thank you for the pleasures
For sadness, for sweet torment,
For the noise, for the storms, for the feasts,
For everything, for all your gifts...
A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin"
We drink from the cup of existence
With eyes closed...
Lermontov "The Cup of Life"
... a boy caught in love
To a girl shrouded in silks...
N. Gumilev " Eagle of Sinbad"
The golden grove dissuaded
Birch cheerful language.
S. Yesenin " The golden grove dissuaded…"
Sad, and crying, and laughing,
The streams of my poems ring
At your feet
And every verse
Runs, weaves a living thread,
Not knowing our own shores.
A. Blok " Sad, and crying, and laughing...."
Save my speech forever for the taste of misfortune and smoke...
O. Mandelstam " Save my speech forever…"
... seethed, washing away kings,
July curve street...
O. Mandelstam " I pray for pity and mercy..."
Now the wind embraces flocks of waves in a strong embrace and throws them with wild anger onto the cliffs, smashing emerald masses into dust and splashes.
M. Gorky " Song about the Petrel"
The sea has woken up. It played with small waves, giving birth to them, decorating them with a fringe of foam, pushing them against each other and breaking them into fine dust.
M. Gorky " Chelkash"
Realized - metaphor , which again finds direct meaning. The result of this process at the everyday level is often comical:
For example: I lost my temper and got on the bus
The exam will not take place: all tickets have been sold.
If you go into yourself, don't come back empty-handed and so on.
The simple-minded joker-gravedigger in William Shakespeare's tragedy " Hamlet" to the main character's question about " on what basis"The young prince has lost his mind, replies: " In our Danish" He understands the word " the soil"literally - the top layer of the earth, territory, while Hamlet means figuratively - for what reason, as a result of what."
« Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh's hat! " - the king complains in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin " Boris Godunov" Crown Russian Tsars Since the time of Vladimir Monomakh, it has had the shape of a hat. She was decorated precious stones, so it was “heavy” in the literal sense of the word. In figurative terms - “ Monomakh's hat" personified " heaviness", responsibility royal power, the difficult responsibilities of an autocrat.
In the novel by A.S. Pushkin “ Eugene Onegin“An important role is played by the image of the Muse, who since ancient times has personified the source of poetic inspiration. The expression “the poet was visited by a muse” has a figurative meaning. But the Muse - the poet's friend and inspirer - appears in the novel in the form of a living woman, young, beautiful, cheerful. IN " student cell"It's the Muse" opened a feast of young ideas- pranks and serious arguments about life. She is the one " sang"Everything that the young poet strived for - earthly passions and desires: friendship, a cheerful feast, thoughtless joy - " children's fun" Muse, " how the bacchante frolicked", and the poet was proud of his " frivolous friend».
During her southern exile, Muse appeared as a romantic heroine - a victim of her destructive passions, determined, capable of reckless rebellion. Her image helped the poet create an atmosphere of mystery and mystery in his poems:
How often l ask Muse
I enjoyed the silent path
The magic of a secret story!..
At the turning point of the author’s creative quest, it was she
She appeared as a district young lady,
With a sad thought in his eyes...
Throughout the entire work " affectionate Muse"was true" girlfriend"poet.
The implementation of metaphor is often found in the poetry of V. Mayakovsky. So, in the poem “ A cloud in pants"he implements the popular expression " nerves cleared up" or " I'm on my nerves»:
I hear:
quiet,
like a sick person out of bed,
the nerve jumped.
Here, -
walked first
barely,
then he ran in
excited,
clear.
Now he and the new two
rushing about with desperate tap dancing...
Nerves -
big,
small,
many, -
are jumping madly,
and already
Nervous legs give way!
It should be remembered that the boundary between different types of metaphor is very arbitrary, unstable, and it can be difficult to accurately determine the type.
The role of metaphors in the text
Metaphor is one of the most striking and strong means creating expressiveness and imagery of the text.
Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text not only enhances the visibility and clarity of what is depicted, but also conveys the uniqueness and individuality of objects or phenomena, while demonstrating the depth and character of his own associative-figurative thinking, vision of the world, the measure of talent (“The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors. Only this cannot be learned from another - this is a sign of talent” (Aristotle).
Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing the author's assessments and emotions, the author's characteristics of objects and phenomena.
For example: I feel stuffy in this atmosphere! Kites! Owl's nest! Crocodiles!(A.P. Chekhov)
In addition to artistic and journalistic styles, metaphors are characteristic of conversational and even scientific styles (“ the ozone hole », « electron cloud " and etc.).
Personification- this is a type of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts.
More often personifications are used when describing nature.
For example:
Rolling through sleepy valleys,
The sleepy mists have settled,
And only the clatter of horses,
Sounding, it gets lost in the distance.
The day has gone out, turning pale autumn,
Rolling up the fragrant leaves,
Taste dreamless sleep
Half-withered flowers.
(M. Yu. Lermontov)
Less often, personifications are associated with the objective world.
For example:
Isn't it true, never again
Will we not part? Enough?..
AND the violin answered Yes,
But the violin's heart was hurting.
The bow understood everything, he fell silent,
And in the violin the echo was still there...
And it was torment for them,
What people thought was music.
(I. F. Annensky);
There was something good-natured and at the same time cozy in the faces of this house. (D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak)
Personifications- the paths are very old, their roots go back to pagan antiquity and therefore occupy such important place in mythology and folklore. The Fox and the Wolf, the Hare and the Bear, the epic Serpent Gorynych and the Foul Idol - all these and other fantastic and zoological characters from fairy tales and epics are familiar to us from early childhood.
One of the literary genres closest to folklore, the fable, is based on personification.
Even today it is unthinkable to imagine works of art without personification; our everyday speech is unthinkable without them.
Figurative speech not only visually represents an idea. Its advantage is that it is shorter. Instead of describing an object in detail, we can compare it with an already known object.
It is impossible to imagine poetic speech without using this technique:
"The storm covers the sky with darkness
Whirling snow whirlwinds
Then, like a beast, she will howl,
She will cry like a child."(A.S. Pushkin)
The role of personifications in the text
Personifications serve to create bright, expressive and imaginative pictures of something, enhancing conveyed thoughts and feelings.
Personification as a means of expression is used not only in artistic style, but also in journalistic and scientific.
For example: X-rays show, the device says, the air heals, something is stirring in the economy.
The most common metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification, when an inanimate object receives the properties of an animate one, as if acquiring a face.
1. Typically, the two components of a personification metaphor are a subject and a predicate: " the blizzard was angry», « the golden cloud spent the night», « the waves are playing».
« Get angry", that is, only a person can experience irritation, but " snowstorm", a blizzard, plunging the world into cold and darkness, also brings " evil". « Spend the night"Only living beings are capable of sleeping peacefully at night, " cloud" represents a young woman who has found an unexpected shelter. Marine « waves"in the poet's imagination" play", like children.
We often find examples of metaphors of this type in the poetry of A.S. Pushkin:
Not suddenly delights will abandon us...
A mortal dream flies over him...
My days have flown by...
The spirit of life awakened in him...
The Fatherland caressed you...
Poetry awakens in me...
2. Many personification metaphors are built according to the method of control: “ lyre singing», « the talk of the waves», « fashion darling», « happiness darling" and etc.
A musical instrument is like the human voice, and it too " sings", and the splashing of the waves resembles a quiet conversation. " Favorite», « darling"happens not only to people, but also to wayward ones" fashion"or the fickle one" happiness».
For example: “winter threat”, “the voice of the abyss”, “the joy of sadness”, “the day of despondency”, “the son of laziness”, “threads ... of fun”, “brother by muse, by fate”, “victim of slander”, “cathedrals wax faces ", "joy tongue", "sorrow load", "hope youthful days“,” “pages of malice and vice,” “sacred voice,” “by the will of passions.”
But there are metaphors formed differently. The criterion of difference here is the principle of animateness and inanimateness. Inanimate object DOES NOT receive the properties of an animate.
1). Subject and predicate: “desire is boiling”, “eyes are burning”, “heart is empty”.
Desire in a person can manifest itself to a strong degree, seethe and “ boil" The eyes, showing excitement, shine and “ are burning" A heart and soul that are not warmed by feeling can become “ empty».
For example: “I learned grief early, I was overcome by persecution”, “our youth will not suddenly fade”, “noon... was burning”, “the moon is floating”, “conversations flow”, “stories spread out”, “love... faded”, “I am calling the shadow ", "life has fallen."
2). Phrases constructed according to the method of control can also, being metaphors, NOT be personification: “ dagger of treason», « tomb of glory», « chain of clouds" and etc.
Steel arms - " dagger" - kills a person, but " treason“is like a dagger and can also destroy and break life. " Tomb“This is a crypt, a grave, but not only people can be buried, but also glory, worldly love. " Chain"consists of metal links, but " clouds", intricately intertwined, forming a kind of chain in the sky.
For example: “flattery of a necklace”, “twilight of freedom”, “forest... of voices”, “clouds of arrows”, “noise of poetry”, “bell of brotherhood”, “poetry intensity”, “fire... of black eyes”, “salt of solemn grievances”, “ the science of parting", "flame of southern blood" .
Many metaphors of this kind are formed according to the principle of reification, when the defined word receives the properties of some substance or material: “crystal windows”, “gold hair” .
On a sunny day, the window seems to sparkle like " crystal", and the hair takes on color " gold" The hidden comparison inherent in the metaphor is especially noticeable here.
For example: “in the black velvet of the Soviet night, in the velvet of the universal emptiness”, “poems... grape meat”, “crystal of high notes”, “poems like rattling pearls”.
Epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons - all these are means of artistic expression that are actively used in the Russian literary language. There is a huge variety of them. They are necessary in order to make the language bright and expressive, enhance artistic images, and attract the reader’s attention to the idea that the author wants to convey.
What are the means of artistic expression?
Epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons refer to different groups means of artistic expression.
Linguistic scientists distinguish sound or phonetic visual means. Lexical are those that are associated with a specific word, that is, a lexeme. If an expressive device covers a phrase or a whole sentence, then it is syntactic.
Separately, they also consider phraseological means (they are based on phraseological units), tropes (special figures of speech used in a figurative meaning).
Where are the means of artistic expression used?
It is worth noting that the means of artistic expression are used not only in literature, but also in various spheres of communication.
Most often, epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons can be found, of course, in artistic and journalistic speech. They are also present in colloquial and even scientific styles. They play a huge role, as they help the author to realize his artistic concept, his image. They are also useful for the reader. With their help, he can penetrate into the secret world of the creator of the work, better understand and delve into the author's intention.
Epithet
Epithets in poetry are one of the most common literary devices. It is surprising that an epithet can be not only an adjective, but also an adverb, noun and even a numeral (a common example is second Life).
Most literary scholars consider the epithet as one of the main devices in poetic creativity, decorating poetic speech.
If we turn to the origins of this word, it comes from the ancient Greek concept, literally meaning “attached”. That is, being an addition to the main word, main function which makes the main idea clearer and more expressive. Most often, the epithet comes before the main word or expression.
Like all means of artistic expression, epithets developed from one literary era to another. So, in folklore, that is, in folk art, the role of epithets in the text is very large. They describe the properties of objects or phenomena. Their key features are highlighted, while extremely rarely addressing the emotional component.
Later, the role of epithets in literature changes. It is expanding significantly. This means of artistic expression is given new properties and filled with functions that were not previously inherent in it. This becomes especially noticeable among the poets of the Silver Age.
Nowadays, especially in postmodern literary works, the structure of the epithet became even more complex. The semantic content of this trope has also increased, leading to surprisingly expressive techniques. For example: the diapers were golden.
Function of epithets
The definitions epithet, metaphor, personification, comparison come down to one thing - all of this artistic media, giving prominence and expressiveness to our speech. Both literary and colloquial. The special function of the epithet is also strong emotionality.
These means of artistic expression, and especially epithets, help readers or listeners to visualize what the author is talking or writing about, to understand how he relates to this subject.
Epithets serve to realistically recreate a historical era, a certain social group or people. With their help, we can imagine how these people spoke, what words colored their speech.
What is a metaphor?
Translated from ancient Greek, metaphor is “transfer of meaning.” This characterizes this concept as well as possible.
A metaphor can be either a separate word or a whole expression that is used by the author in a figurative sense. This means of artistic expression is based on a comparison of an object that has not yet been named with some other one based on their common feature.
Unlike most other literary terms, metaphor has a specific author. This is a famous philosopher Ancient Greece- Aristotle. The initial birth of this term is associated with Aristotle’s ideas about art as a method of imitating life.
Moreover, the metaphors that Aristotle used are almost impossible to distinguish from literary exaggeration (hyperbole), ordinary comparison or personification. He understood metaphor much more broadly than modern literary scholars.
Examples of the use of metaphor in literary speech
Epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons are actively used in works of art. Moreover, for many authors, it is metaphors that become an aesthetic end in themselves, sometimes completely displacing the original meaning of the word.
As an example, literary researchers cite the famous English poet and playwright William Shakespeare. For him, what is often important is not the everyday original meaning of a particular statement, but the metaphorical meaning it acquires, a new unexpected meaning.
For those readers and researchers who were brought up on the Aristotelian understanding of the principles of literature, this was unusual and even incomprehensible. So, on this basis Leo Tolstoy did not recognize Shakespeare’s poetry. His point of view in Russia in the 19th century was shared by many readers of the English playwright.
Moreover, with the development of literature, metaphor begins not only to reflect, but also to create the life around us. A striking example from classical Russian literature is Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol's story "The Nose". The nose of the collegiate assessor Kovalev, who went on his own journey around St. Petersburg, is not only a hyperbole, personification and comparison, but also a metaphor that gives this image a new unexpected meaning.
The example of futurist poets who worked in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century is illustrative. Their main goal was to distance the metaphor as far as possible from its original meaning. Vladimir Mayakovsky often used such techniques. An example is the title of his poem “A Cloud in Pants.”
Moreover, after October revolution The use of metaphor became much less frequent. Soviet poets and writers strived for clarity and straightforwardness, so the need to use words and expressions in a figurative sense disappeared.
Although it is impossible to imagine a work of art, even by Soviet authors, without metaphor. Almost everyone uses metaphor words. In Arkady Gaidar's "The Fate of a Drummer" you can find the following phrase - "So we parted ways. The stomping has stopped, and the field is empty."
In Soviet poetry of the 70s, Konstantin Kedrov introduced the concept of “meta-metaphor” or, as it is also called, “metaphor squared”. The metaphor has a new one distinguishing feature- she is constantly involved in development literary language. As well as speech and culture itself as a whole.
For this purpose, metaphors are constantly used when talking about the latest sources of knowledge and information, they are used to describe modern achievements humanity in science and technology.
Personification
In order to understand what personification is in literature, let us turn to the origin of this concept. Like most literary terms, it has its roots in the ancient Greek language. Literally translated it means “face” and “do”. With the help of this literary device, natural forces and phenomena, inanimate objects acquire properties and signs inherent in humans. It’s as if they are animated by the author. For example, they can be given the properties of the human psyche.
Such techniques are often used not only in modern fiction, but also in mythology, and religion, in magic and cults. Personification was a key means of artistic expression in legends and parables, which explained to ancient people how the world works and what is behind natural phenomena. They were animated, endowed with human qualities, and associated with gods or supermen. This made it easier for ancient man to accept and understand the reality around him.
Examples of avatars
Examples of specific texts will help us understand what personification is in literature. Thus, in a Russian folk song, the author claims that "bast is girded with grief".
With the help of personification, a special worldview appears. It is characterized by an unscientific idea of natural phenomena. When, for example, thunder grumbles like an old man, or the sun is perceived not as an inanimate cosmic object, but as a specific god named Helios.
Comparison
In order to understand the basic modern means of artistic expression, it is important to understand what comparison is in literature. Examples will help us with this. At Zabolotsky we meet: "He used to be loud, like a bird"or Pushkin: "He ran faster than a horse".
Very often comparisons are used in Russian folk art. So we clearly see that this is a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another on the basis of some characteristic common to them. The purpose of comparison is to find in the described object new and important properties for the subject of artistic expression.
Metaphor, epithets, comparisons, personifications serve a similar purpose. The table, which presents all these concepts, helps to clearly understand how they differ from each other.
Types of comparisons
For a detailed understanding, let us consider what comparison is in literature, examples and varieties of this trope.
It can be used in the form of a comparative phrase: the man is as stupid as a pig.
There are non-union comparisons: My home is my castle.
Comparisons are often formed by using a noun in the instrumental case. Classic example: he walks like a nog.
A comparison is a figurative phrase or some kind of expanded structure that involves a comparison of two concepts, phenomena or states that have a common feature. Due to the common feature, the individual effect and artistic significance of what is being compared is enhanced.
The act of comparison appears to be at the very origins of the poetic image. This is its initial form, from which all other types of small verbal imagery naturally flow: metaphor, metonymy, parallelism, etc. Comparison contains the very essence of figurative thinking, its synthesizing character in the comprehension of existence. Artistic thought, like comparison, always correlates and brings together what is separated by the boundaries of time and space. She creates a picture one world, in which all objects and phenomena are covered by an all-pervasive connection. “Everything in the universe is connected, has a relationship with each other, corresponds to one another,” Goethe said in conversations with Eckermann, as if making it clear that the universe itself is like a grandiose work of art. In order for comparison to arise, this initial act of artistic thought, it was necessary for human thinking to overcome the feeling of disunity of objects, so that it began to connect, connect them, looking for common features in heterogeneous things.
We can say that the comparison contains, as it were, an elementary model work of art. After all, a work lives only by comparisons of images, characters, details; everything in it is comparable. Comparing, juxtaposing train of thought is not only the basis of artistic thinking, but also the basis of our perception of art.
Comparison brings objects and phenomena of life together in order to concretize what is depicted, because the concrete, as we know, is always fuller and richer than the abstract. Comparison is always a discovery: it suddenly reveals something common where at first only different things were seen. Here the artist’s vigilance triumphs, and the more unusual the comparison, the stronger the impression of discovery.
It looked like a clear evening:
Neither day nor night, neither darkness nor light...
This is how Lermontov depicts the state of the Demon’s soul on the verge of crisis: light and darkness in it are not just in conflict, they are already close to a state of equilibrium, and it seems that the soul needs only one strong push for it to find peace and faith. The meeting with Tamara was such an impetus for the Demon. At the same time, the comparison with the evening seems to anticipate the ending of the poem: the evening balance of the Demon’s soul turned out to be short-lived, followed by a spiritual night.
In comparison, the act of comparison is formally enshrined. The objects being compared are brought closer and at the same time retain their boundaries. This is expressed grammatically using certain words: as, as if, like, as if, similar to, etc.
Comparison in literature, like an epithet, is always an indicator of the tenacity and freshness of a writer’s vision (external and “internal”). But, like an epithet, it often presupposes the choice of a certain sphere of life from which the material is drawn. This choice itself speaks volumes, not only about the artist’s personal preferences, but sometimes about the way of life of an entire people, about their value system. A whole cascade of comparisons that poured into the “Song of Solomon”, where the beauty of Shulamith is depicted, speaks not only of her irresistible beauty, but also of the nature of the life of the ancient Jews, in particular, that they lived by agriculture and cattle breeding. It is from these spheres that comparisons are drawn, in which all the fullness, luxury and earthly power of being are embodied - a reflection of the creative power of the Lord.
The intensification of comparisons drawn from the arsenal of earthly wealth and luxury is characteristic of the poetry of the East where it strives to embody the ideal of female beauty. And beauty is perceived not only in ideally bodily, but also in excessive manifestations. Hegel connected this tendency of Eastern poetry toward “an abundance of luxurious images,” woven into endless chains of comparisons, with the psychology of the Eastern worldview.
A comparison in which both links of the image (the one being compared and what it is being compared with) are branched is called expanded. Objects and phenomena of mental life here are often compared not by one, but by several criteria. But since in a detailed comparison both links are detailed and dissected and poetically specific, the second member of the comparison often acquires a touch of illustration. Moreover, it may not contain a comprehensive analogy.
Pushkin's "Autumn" contains an example of just such a structure. At first it may seem that the scope of the extended comparison here is limited only by the boundaries of the eleventh stanza. But that's not true. After all, the image of a ship preparing to sail (the second link of comparison) includes an analogy with the initial state of the soul, immersed in a poetic plan. And the line “So the motionless ship slumbers in the motionless moisture” lives in a roll call with the beginning of the X stanza.
And yet, one cannot help but notice that the image of the sea “hulk” associatively resonates only with the extreme and polar phases of the creative process (calm, contemplative slumber and rapid movement of thought). Between them in the second link of comparison (the image of a ship) no intermediate “joints” are visible. But it is precisely thanks to them that the image of the creative state of the soul in Pushkin acquires complexity and richness of facets, the dynamics of self-disclosure. Indeed, for Pushkin, the mystery of inspiration is reflected not simply in the replacement of peace of mind with the confusion of creative “fever”. The poetic contrast of calm and impulse permeates all the stages that the artist’s creative will goes through on the way from a vague idea to its embodiment. At first there is only a sweet sleep of thought and a feast of imagination (“I am sweetly lulled to sleep by my imagination”). Poetry begins when the first impulse is born, the desire to pour the unsteady sleep of the soul into living, contemplated forms. This stage is marked by special tension and tediousness of search.
But then the impetuous intonation of the verse suddenly levels out, acquiring a smooth and slow pace. There is a decline in the movement of the verse. It accompanies a new phase in the development of thought, a moment of enlightenment of the creative spirit, uninhibited imagination, when the poet becomes the free ruler of his artistic world. But this time the calm is instantaneous, it is replaced by a new impulse, even more unbridled and passionate, the desire to embody the found forms of life. The eleventh stanza begins with an unexpected “take-off” of thought, with a statement (“And the thoughts in the head are agitated in courage”), pulling behind it a whole chain of additions, fastened by anaphoric repetition and parallelisms at the beginning of the lines (“And thoughts... And rhymes...” . And fingers..."). The dynamics and expression of these poems are so great that even the word “minute,” interrupting the chain of additions, seems to be “captured” by this movement, acquiring the effect of extension, the impression of a passing moment. In the image of the ship, all these shades, transitions, stages are removed and only a generalized analogue of the contrast is presented, which in the picture of the creative process arises again and again, each time enriching its meaning.
So, the absence of an exhaustive analogy in Pushkin’s extended comparison is obvious. This is explained by the fact that the rich and multidimensional content of Pushkin’s thought is already expressed in the first link of comparison and is expressed, of course, in the language of image. All that remains is to apply a rounding stroke, to immerse the thought in the element of absolute plasticity (the image of a ship), thereby giving it a special shine and creating, as if by the way, a “springboard” for further run-up of associations (a metaphorical rethinking of the verb “sails” - “Sails. Where do we go?” swim?").
