The difference between speech and language
The difference between speech and language is that speech is an individual mental phenomenon, while language as a system - a social phenomenon. Speech- dynamic, mobile, situationally determined. Language- a balanced system of internal relations. It is constant and stable, invariant in its basic patterns. The elements of the language are organized into a system according to the formal-semantic principle, they function in speech on a communicative-semantic basis. In speech, general linguistic patterns are always manifested concretely, situationally and contextually. Knowledge about the language system, which is formulated in the form of rules, can be acquired theoretically, while mastering speech requires appropriate practice, as a result of which speech skills and abilities are created.
The original unit of the language is a word and original unit of speech- a sentence or a phrase. For the theoretical purposes of the language being studied, it is important to have complete knowledge of its system. For practical purposes in high school it is necessary to possess such a volume of language material that is sufficient for limited communicative purposes and is real for mastering it in given conditions.
Speech is the use of language in communication. The starting point of speech actions is a speech situation when a person has a need or need to perform one or another speech action. At the same time, verbal communication takes place in any specific conditions: in one place or another, with one or another participant in the communicative act. In each speech situation, one or another function of the language is realized in order to achieve the goal for which the communicative act is performed. So, speech can be characterized as follows: it is a concrete, private, random, individual, non-systemic, variable phenomenon.
Language is a specific sign system that a person uses to communicate with other people. Thanks to language, a person has a universal means of accumulating and transmitting information, and without this, the development of human society would not be possible. The system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical means, which are a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, serving as the most important means of communication between people.
Different scientists distinguish a different number of language functions, since language has many purposes in human society. The functions of the language are not equivalent. However, the main function is already reflected in the definition of the language. Language- the main means of communication (or communication). In human speech activity language features combined in different combinations. In each specific speech message, one function out of several may predominate.
Language features represented by the following set: communicative(ensuring mutual understanding of people) - the function of being the basis of thought; expressive(to express attitude towards what is being said). The dominant position of the communicative function is determined by the frequency of language implementation precisely for the purpose of communication, which determines its main properties.
Availability ternary language function: expressions, appeals, representations. In earlier terminology: expression, motivation, representation. They actually represent the various purposes of speech utterances: representative- message, expressive- expression of emotions appellative- motivation to action. These functions are not only hierarchically correlated (the representative function has a dominant role), but it is also possible to have a language implementation with the complete predominance of one of them.
six functions are defined as orientations, attitudes towards the six elements of the situation. First three: referential(communicative) - orientation to the context (referent), expressive(emotive) - orientation to the addresser (an expression of the speaker's attitude to what he is talking about), conative(appellative) - orientation to the addressee. There are also additional ones derived from the given triad (and according to the model of the speech situation): phatic(focus on contact), metalinguistic(focus on code, language), poetic(directed to the message). The verbal structure of a message depends primarily on the predominant function.
Functions of language and speech:
1) in relation to humanity as a whole ( communicative function as a unity communication and generalizations);
2) in relation to historically specific societies, groups of communicating (functions as spheres use language and speech: functions of servicing everyday communication; communication in the field of primary, secondary, higher education, communication in the business field, in the field of science, in the field of production, in the field of socio-political and state activities, in the field of mass communication, in the field of religion, in the field of interethnic, regional and international communication);
3) in relation to the components of the current communication situation: representative, expressive (emotive), contact-setting (phatic), impact function, metalinguistic and poetic, or aesthetic;
4) in relation to the goals and results of statements in specific speech actions, or acts of communication (message, expression of an internal state, request for information, directive function; concretization of these functions in the theory of speech acts).
The most fundamental are communicative function and function of way of expressing thought (cognitive and cognitive function). In the communicative function, there are: 1) a function communication– as the main F. Ya., one of the sides of the communicative function, which consists in the mutual exchange statements members of the language community; 2) the function of the message - as one of the sides of the communicative function, which consists in the transfer of some logical content; 3) the function of influence, the implementation of which is: a) a voluntarily function - an expression of the will of the speaker; b) expressive function - a message to the statement of expressiveness; c) emotive function - the expression of feelings, emotions.
3. The concept of "culture of speech". The main features of cultural speech
A culture of speech- possession of the norms of oral and written literary language (rules of pronunciation, word usage, grammar and style). Used in modern science in two main meanings: 1) socio-historically conditioned modern speech culture of society; 2) a set of requirements for the quality of oral and written speech of native speakers of a literary language from the point of view of a socially perceived linguistic ideal, the taste of a certain era. In mastering the culture of speech, they usually distinguish two stages. The first is associated with the development of literary and linguistic norms by students. Possession of them ensures the correctness of speech, which forms the basis of individual K. r. The second stage involves the creative application of norms in different situations of communication, including speech skills, the ability to choose the most accurate, stylistically and situationally appropriate options.
Literacy - traditional sign"cultural" language. signs: correctness, purity, accuracy, expressiveness, consistency, relevance, richness.
4. Forms of existence of the national language .
Language is a complex phenomenon that exists in several forms. These include: dialects, vernacular, jargon and literary language.
Dialects are local dialects of Russia, limited territorially. They exist only in oral speech, they serve for everyday communication.
Vernacular is the speech of people that does not correspond to the literary norms of the Russian language (ridiculitis, kolidor, without a coat, a driver).
Jargon is the speech of social and professional groups of people united by a common occupation, interests, etc. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology. Sometimes the word slang is used as a synonym for the word jargon. Argo is the speech of the lower classes of society, the criminal world, beggars, thieves and swindlers.
Literary language is the highest form of the national language, processed by masters of the word. It has two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is subject to orthoepic and intonational forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of an addressee has no effect, it allows processing, editing.
5. Literary language as the highest form of the national language .
The Russian literary language is the highest form of the national language and the basis of the culture of speech. It serves various spheres of human activity - politics, legislation, culture, verbal art, office work, etc. Many prominent scientists emphasize the importance of the literary language both for an individual and for the whole nation. It is noteworthy that not only Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, but also Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov, Likhachev emphasized the importance of mastering the norms of the Russian literary language. Wealth, clarity of expression of thought, accuracy testify to the richness of the general culture of a person, to a high degree of his professional training.
In the scientific linguistic literature, the main features of the literary language are defined:
· processing,
· Sustainability,
· Obligation,
The presence of oral and written form,
・Normalization
The presence of functional styles.
The Russian language exists in two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is sound, obeys orthoepic and intonational forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of an addressee has no effect, it allows processing, editing.
6. Language norm, its role in the formation and functioning of the literary language .
The founder of the first Russian philological school is Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, who put forward the criterion of historical expediency in streamlining the norms of the literary language. He distinguished the styles of the literary language depending on the stylistic characteristics of the language units, for the first time defining the norms of the literary language.
Yakov Karlovich Grot was the first to systematize and theoretically comprehend the set of spelling laws of the literary language. A system of grammatical and stylistic marks was developed for his normative "dictionary of the Russian language".
A new stage in the codification of norms is associated with the names of Ushakov, Vinogradov, Vinokurov, Ozhegov, Shcherva. The norms were formed as a result of the selection of language means in the process of communication and become correct and obligatory. The norm is cultivated in print media, in the media, in the process of school and vocational training.
Codification of the norm - fixing it in dictionaries, grammars, teaching aids. The norm is relatively stable and systemic, since it includes the rules for choosing elements of all levels of the language system. It is mobile and changeable, it can change over time under the influence of spoken language.
The norms of the modern Russian language are enshrined in the publications of the Russian Academy of Sciences: various grammars and dictionaries.
The terms of normalization and codification are different. Normalization is the process of formation, approval of the norm, its description and ordering by the linguist. Normalization activity finds its expression in the codification of the literary norm - its recognition and description in the form of rules.
The norms of the language are stable and systemic, but at the same time stable. Norms exist at different levels of the language - phonetic, lexical, grammatical. According to the degree of obligation, there are imperative (strictly mandatory norms) and dispositive (assuming variants of pronunciation of grammatical and syntactic units). Objective fluctuations in the literary norm are associated with the development of the language, when variants are transitional steps from the outdated to the new. Norma is one of essential conditions stability, unity and originality of the national language. The norm is dynamic, because it is the result of human activity, enshrined in tradition. Fluctuations in the norm are the result of the interaction of functional styles. Such phenomena of social life as anti-normalization and purism are closely related to the development of norms.
Anti-normalization is the denial of the scientific normalization and codification of the language, based on the assertion of the spontaneity of the development of the language.
Purism is the rejection of innovations or their outright prohibition. Purism plays the role of a regulator that protects against borrowing, excessive innovation
7. Norms of orthoepy. Pronunciation of vowels and consonants .
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy. Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is essential. Orthoepic errors interfere with perceiving the content of speech, and pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates and speeds up the process of communication.
The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation. In Russian speech, voiced consonants are obligatory stunned at the end of a word. We pronounce bread[p] - bread, sa[t] - garden. The consonant g at the end of a word always turns into a deaf sound paired with it k. An exception is the word god.
In a combination of voiced and deaf consonants, the first of them is likened to the second. If the first of them is voiced, and the second is deaf, the first sound is deafened: lo [sh] ka - a spoon, pro [n] ka - a cork. If the first is deaf, and the second is voiced, the first sound is voiced: [h] doba - muffin, [h] ruin - ruin.
Before the consonants [l], [m], [n], [r], which do not have paired deaf, and before the assimilation does not occur and the words are pronounced as they are written: light [tl] o, [shw] ryat.
The combinations of szh and zzh are pronounced as a double hard [zh]: ra[zh]at - unclench, [zh] life - with life, fry - [zh] to fry.
The combination sch is pronounced as a long soft sound [sh '], just like the sound transmitted in writing by the letter u: [sh '] astier - happiness, [sh '] no - account.
The combination zch is pronounced as a long soft sound [sh ']: prik [sh '] ik - clerk, obra [sh '] ik - sample.
The combinations of tch and dch are pronounced as a long sound [h ']: report [h '] ik - speaker, le [h '] ik - pilot.
The combinations of ts and dts are pronounced as a long sound q: two [ts] at - twenty, gold [ts] e - gold.
In combinations of stn, zdn, stl, consonant sounds [t] and [d] drop out: prettier [sn] y, po [kn] o, che [sn], uch [sl] ive.
The combination ch is usually pronounced like this [ch] (al[ch] th, careless [ch] th). Pronunciation [shn] instead of [ch] is required in female patronymics on -ichna: Ilyini[shn]a, Nikiti[shn]a. Some words are pronounced in two ways: bulo [shn] aya and bulo [ch] aya, Molo[shn] y and young [ch] y. In some cases, different pronunciation serves to semantic differentiation of words: heart [ch] beat - heart [shn] friend.
8. Norms of stress. Features of Russian stress .
Incorrect stress in words reduces the culture of oral speech. Errors in stress can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. Features and functions of stress are studied by the department of linguistics accentology. Stress in Russian, unlike other languages, is free, that is, it can fall on any syllable. In addition, the stress can be mobile (if in different forms of the word it falls on the same part) and fixed (if the stress changes place in different forms of the same word).
In some words, difficulties in stress exist due to the fact that many do not know their belonging to a part of speech. For example, the adjective developed. This word is used in the sense of "highly developed". But in Russian there is a participle developed, or developed, formed from the verb to develop. In this case, the stress depends on whether it is an adjective or a participle.
In the Russian alphabet there is a letter ё, which is considered optional, optional. The printing of the letter e instead of e in literature and official papers led to the fact that in many words they began to pronounce on the spot about e: not bile - [zho] lch, but bile - [zhe] lch, not an obstetrician - aku [shor], but obstetrician - aku [Sher]. In some words, the emphasis was shifted: bewitched, underestimated instead of the correct bewitched, underestimated.
9. Pronunciation of loanwords .
Borrowed words usually obey the orthoepic norms of the modern Russian language and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features.
In an unstressed position, the sound [o] is preserved in words such as m[o] turf, m[o] del, [o] asis. But most borrowed vocabulary obeys the general rules for pronunciation [o] and [a] in unstressed syllables: b[a] cal, k[a] styum, r[a] yal.
In most borrowed words, before [e], the consonants are softened: ka [t ']et, pa [t '] efon, [s '] eriya, ga [z '] eta. But in a number of words of foreign origin, the hardness of consonants before [e] is preserved: sh[te]psel, s[te]nd, e[ne]rgia. More often, hardness before [e] is retained by dental consonants: [t], [d], [s], [s], [n], [p].
10. Functional-semantic types of speech:
description, narration, reasoning. Description can be used in any style of speech, but in the scientific characterization of the subject should be as complete as possible, and in the artistic, the emphasis is only on the brightest details. Therefore, linguistic means in the scientific and artistic style are more diverse than in the scientific one: there are not only adjectives and nouns, but also verbs, adverbs, comparisons, various figurative uses of words are very common.
Examples of descriptions in scientific and artistic style. 1. Apple tree - ranet purple - frost-resistant variety. The fruits are rounded, 2.5-3 cm in diameter. Fruit weight 17-23 g. Medium juiciness, with a characteristic sweet, slightly astringent taste. 2. Linden apples were large and transparent yellow. If you look through an apple in the sun, it shone through like a glass of fresh linden honey. There were grains in the middle. You used to shake a ripe apple near your ear, you could hear the seeds rattling.
Narration- this is a story, a message about an event in its temporal sequence. The peculiarity of the narrative is that it talks about actions following one after another. For all narrative texts, the beginning of the event (outset), the development of the event, the end of the event (denouement) are common. The story can be told in a third person. This is the author's story. It can also come from the first person: the narrator is named or indicated by the personal pronoun I. In such texts, verbs in the form of the past tense of the perfect form are often used. But, in order to give the text expressiveness, others are used simultaneously with them: the verb in the form of the past tense of the imperfect form makes it possible to single out one of the actions, denoting its duration; present tense verbs make it possible to present actions as if taking place before the eyes of the reader or listener; forms of the future tense with a particle like (how to jump), as well as forms like clap, jump help to convey the swiftness, surprise of this or that action. Narration as a type of speech is very common in such genres as memoirs, letters.
Narrative example: I began to stroke Yashkin's paw and I think: just like a baby's. And tickled his hand. And the baby somehow pulls his paw - and me on the cheek. I did not even have time to blink, but he slapped me in the face and jumped under the table. Sat down and grins.
reasoning- this is a verbal presentation, explanation, confirmation of any thought. The composition of the reasoning is as follows: the first part is a thesis, that is, a thought that must be logically proved, substantiated or refuted; the second part is the rationale for the expressed thought, evidence, arguments, supported by examples; the third part is the conclusion, the conclusion. The thesis must be clearly provable, clearly articulated, the arguments are convincing and in sufficient quantity to confirm the thesis put forward. Between the thesis and arguments (as well as between individual arguments) should
be a logical and grammatical connection. For a grammatical connection between the thesis and arguments, introductory words are often used: firstly, secondly, finally, so, therefore, in this way. In the reasoning text, sentences with conjunctions are widely used, however, although, despite the fact that, since.
An example of reasoning: The development of the meanings of a word usually goes from the particular (concrete) to the general (abstract). Let's think about the literal meaning of such, for example, words as education, disgust, previous. Education literally means "feeding", disgust - "turning away" (from an unpleasant person or object), the previous one - "going ahead".
The words-terms denoting abstract mathematical concepts: “segment”, “tangent”, “point”, originated from very specific action verbs: cut, touch, stick (poke).
In all these cases, the original concrete meaning acquires a more abstract meaning in the language.
11. Functional styles of the modern Russian language, their interaction .
Functional styles are created as a result of the selection of language tools depending on the goals and objectives that are set and solved in the process of communication.
Usually, the following functional styles are distinguished: 1) scientific, 2) official business, 3) journalistic, 4) colloquial and everyday.
The attachment of words to a certain style is explained by the fact that words that have the same meaning can differ in emotional and stylistic coloring, therefore they are used in different styles (shortage - deficit, liar - liar, squander - squander, cry - complain). In everyday everyday dialogue, characteristic of oral speech, mostly colloquial vocabulary is used. She doesn't break the rules. literary speech, but its use is unacceptable in official communication.
The scientific style is characterized by scientific terminology: pedagogy, society, state, theory, process, structure. Words are used in a direct, nominative sense, there is no emotionality. Sentences are narrative in nature, mostly in direct word order.
A feature of the official business style is a concise, compact presentation, economical use of language tools. Characteristic set expressions are used (with gratitude we confirm; we inform that; in case of appearance, etc.). this style is characterized by the "dryness" of presentation, the lack of expressive means, the use of words in their direct meaning.
Characteristic features journalistic style are the relevance of the content, the sharpness and brightness of the presentation, the author's passion. The purpose of the text is to influence the mind and feelings of the reader, listener. A variety of vocabulary is used: terms of literature and art, general literary words, means of speech expressiveness. The text is dominated by detailed stylistic constructions, interrogative and exclamatory sentences are used.
The everyday colloquial style is characterized by the use of various types of sentences, free word order, extremely short sentences, words with evaluative suffixes (week, darling), and figurative means of the language.
12. Scientific style, its features, scope of implementation .
Scientific style is a speech system specially adapted for optimal communication of people in the scientific field of activity.
The scientific style has a number of common features that are characteristic of all sciences, which makes it possible to talk about the specifics of the style as a whole. But texts on physics, chemistry, mathematics cannot but differ from texts on history, philosophy, cultural studies. In accordance with this, the scientific style has sub-styles: scientific - popular, scientific - business, scientific - technical, scientific - journalistic, production - technical, educational - scientific.
The scientific style is characterized by a logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of links between parts of statements, the desire of authors for accuracy, conciseness, unambiguity of expression while maintaining saturation of content. The scientific style is characterized by a number of general conditions of functioning and linguistic features: 1) preliminary consideration of statements, 2) monologue character, 3) strict selection of linguistic means, 4) attraction to normalized speech.
The original form of the existence of scientific speech is written. Written form fixes information for a long time, and science requires just that.
In writing, it is much easier to operate with complex structures that are used in scientific thinking. The written form is more convenient in detecting the slightest inaccuracies, which in scientific communication can lead to the most serious distortions of the truth. The written form makes it possible to refer to information repeatedly. The oral form also has advantages (simultaneity of mass communication, efficiency of orientation to a specific type of addressee, etc.), but it is temporary, while the written one is permanent. The oral form in scientific communication is secondary - scientific work write first, then reproduce.
Scientific speech is fundamentally without subtext, subtext contradicts its essence. It is dominated by a monologue. Even scientific dialogue is a series of alternating monologues. A scientific monologue takes the form of a work with a thoughtful selection of content, clarity of construction, optimal speech design.
Scientific speech operates with concepts of a complex nature. A concept is a form in which the essential features of an object are thought. In the terminology of each science, several layers can be distinguished: 1) general categorical concepts that reflect the most general objects of reality: objects, signs, connections (system, function, element). These concepts constitute the general conceptual fund of science; 2) concepts common to a number of related sciences that have common objects of study (abscissa, protein, vacuum, vector). Such concepts serve as a link between the sciences of the same profile (humanitarian, natural, technical, etc.) and they can be defined as profile-special. 3) highly specialized concepts that are characteristic of one science and reflect the specificity of the research aspect (in biology - biogenic, bothria, etc.).
Along with the selection of types according to the degree of generality, it is also advisable to distinguish types according to the degree of volume, the breadth of the concept. The broadest concepts of this science, in which the most general and essential features and properties are displayed, are called categories. Categories constitute the conceptual core of science. From them comes a network of concepts of ever narrower scope. In general, they constitute the system of special terminology of this science.
13. Formal business style. Genre diversity, scope .
Officially - business style serves the sphere of administrative - legal activity. It satisfies the requirements of society in documenting various acts of the state, public, political, economic life, business relations between the state and organizations, as well as between members of society in the official sphere of their communication.
Official - business style is implemented in texts of various genres: charter, law, order, complaint, prescription, statement. The genres of this style perform informational, prescriptive and ascertaining functions in various fields of activity. In this regard, the main form of implementation is written.
Common stylistic features of the official ice speech are:
· Accuracy of presentation, not allowing the possibility of interpretation, detail of presentation;
stereotyping, standard presentation;
· Must, prescriptive nature of the presentation.
In addition, they note such features of the official business style as: formality, strictness of expression of thought, objectivity and logic inherent in scientific speech.
The system of official business style is made up of 3 types of language tools:
A) Having an appropriate functional and stylistic coloring (plaintiff, defendant, protocol, identity card, job description.
B) Neutral, interstyle, as well as general book language means.
C) Language means that are neutral in stylistic coloring, but have become a sign of official business style (raise a question, express disagreement).
Many verbs are used in the infinitive form, which is associated with the prescriptive function of style. When naming a person, nouns are more often used, rather than pronouns, the designation of a person on the basis of an action (applicant, defendant, tenant). Nouns denoting positions and ranks are used in the masculine form, even when they refer to females (respondent Proshina). The use of verbal nouns and participles is characteristic: the arrival of transport, servicing the population, replenishing the budget.
In official business style texts, antonyms are often used, synonyms are rarely used. Typical are compound words formed from two or more stems: tenant, employer, the above. Accuracy, unambiguity and standardization of the means used are the main features of official business speech.
14. Journalistic style, its features, genres, scope of implementation.
The journalistic style of speech is a functional variety of the literary language and is widely used in various areas of public life: newspapers, magazines, on television, in public political speeches, in the activities of parties and public associations.
The linguistic features of this style are affected by the breadth of topics: there is a need to include special vocabulary that requires explanation. On the other hand, a number of topics are in the center of public attention, and the vocabulary related to these topics acquires a journalistic coloring. Among such topics, politics, economics, education, healthcare, criminalistics, and military topics should be singled out.
Vocabulary, characteristic of the journalistic style, can be used in other styles: in official business, scientific. But in a journalistic style, it acquires a special function - to create a picture of events and convey to the addressee the journalist's impressions of these events.
The journalistic style is characterized by the use of evaluative vocabulary, which has a strong emotional connotation (an energetic start, a firm position, a severe crisis).
Journalistic style performs the function of influence and message. The interaction of these functions determines the use of words in journalism. The message function, by the nature of the use of language means, brings the text closer to the scientific and business style, which has features of factuality. The text, which performs the function of influence, has an openly evaluative character, aimed at campaigning influence in certain parameters, approaching fiction.
In addition to the informational and influencing functions, the texts of the journalistic style also perform other functions inherent in the language: communicative, aesthetic, expressive.
15. Book and colloquial speech. Their features .
The attachment of words to a certain style is explained by the fact that words that have the same meaning can differ in emotional and stylistic coloring, therefore they are used in different styles (shortage - deficit, liar - liar, squander - squander, cry - complain). In everyday everyday dialogue, characteristic of oral speech, mostly colloquial vocabulary is used. It does not violate the norms of literary speech, but its use is unacceptable in official communication (the words blotter, dryer are acceptable in colloquial speech, but are inappropriate in official communication).
Colloquial words are opposed to book vocabulary, which includes words of scientific, technical, journalistic and official business styles. The lexical meaning of book words, their grammatical arrangement and pronunciation are subject to the norms of the literary language, deviation from which is unacceptable.
Concreteness of meaning is characteristic of colloquial vocabulary, book vocabulary is predominantly abstract. The terms book and colloquial vocabulary are conditional, book words typical of written speech can also be used orally, and colloquial words can be used in writing.
In Russian there is large group words used in all styles and characteristic of both oral and written speech. They are called stylistically neutral.
16. Conversational style
Colloquial speech is the oral form of the existence of a language. Distinctive features oral speech can be entirely attributed to the colloquial style. However, the concept of "colloquial speech" is broader than the concept of "conversational style". They cannot be mixed. Although the conversational style is mainly realized in the oral form of communication, some genres of other styles are also carried out in oral speech, for example: a report, lecture, report, etc. Conversational speech functions only in the private sphere of communication, in everyday life, friendly, family and etc. In the field of mass communication, colloquial speech is not applicable. However, this does not mean that the colloquial style is limited to everyday topics. Colloquial speech can also touch on other topics: for example, a conversation in the family circle or a conversation of people in informal relationships about art, science, politics, sports, etc., a conversation of friends at work related to the profession of speakers, conversations in public institutions, such as clinics, schools, etc.
In the sphere of everyday communication, there is colloquial style. The main features of everyday conversational style:
1. Casual and informal nature of communication;
2. Reliance on an extralinguistic situation, i.e. the immediate environment of speech in which communication takes place. For example: Woman (before leaving home): What am I to wear?(about the coat) This is it, isn't it? Or that?(about the jacket) Will I freeze?
Listening to these statements, and not knowing the specific situation, it is impossible to guess what is at stake. Thus, in colloquial speech, the extralinguistic situation becomes an integral part of communication.
1) Lexical variety: and common book vocabulary, and terms, and foreign borrowings, and words of high stylistic coloring, and even some facts of vernacular, dialects and jargons. This is explained, firstly, by the thematic diversity of colloquial speech, which is not limited to everyday topics, everyday remarks, and secondly, by the implementation of colloquial speech in two keys - serious and comic, and in the latter case, it is possible to use various elements.
2) Spoken language is characteristic emotionally expressive assessments subjective nature, since the speaker acts as a private person and expresses his personal opinion and attitude. Very often this or that situation is evaluated hyperbolically: "Wow price! Go crazy!", "Flowers in the garden - the sea!", "I want to drink! I'll die!" Typical use of words in a figurative sense, For example: "You've got porridge in your head!" Colloquial vocabulary is heterogeneous:
Vernacular, which is on the verge of literary use, is not rude in its essence, somewhat familiar; For example: potato instead of potato, savvy instead of cleverness, become instead of happen;
Non-literary vernacular, rude, for example: drive up instead of achieve, plop down instead of fell;
3. Colloquial vocabulary includes:
Colloquial professionalisms, slang words ( plaisir- pleasure, fun; plein air- nature),
Argotisms ( split- betray; lettuce, lettuce- young, inexperienced)
Slang vocabulary can be associated with the age commonality of generations (for example, in the language of youth: spurs(crib), pair(two).
All these categories of words have a narrow sphere of distribution; in the expressive sense, they are characterized by extreme reduction.
4. Syntactic constructions also have their own characteristics. For colloquial speech, constructions with particles, interjections, constructions of a phraseological nature are typical: "They tell you, they say - and it's all to no avail!", "But where are you? There's dirt!" and so on.
Typical for colloquial speech is silence, incompleteness of statements, an abundance of ellipses and incomplete sentences, numerous repetitions, plug-in constructions, the predominance of composing sentences over subordinating ones, and the dialogical nature of the statement.
Conversational style:
Frozen constructions that are not amenable to distinct articulation ( what is true is true; what is bad is bad);
structures with uncontrolled forms ( order with homework);
- "dismemberment" and connecting structures ( I respect her - for honesty and adherence to principles; I'll go home. To the granddaughter);
Sentences with a "shifted" construction ( I don't know where to get water anyway.) and etc.
Language is not only a system of signs that symbolically mediates the human world, but also the most important tool of human activity. Being the most important means of communication, language unites people, regulates their interpersonal and social interaction, coordinates their practical activities, ensures the accumulation and storage of information that is the result of the historical experience of the people and the personal experience of the individual, forms the consciousness of the individual (individual consciousness) and the consciousness of society (public consciousness). ), serves as a material and form of artistic creativity.
Thus, language is closely connected with all human activity and performs various functions.
The main ones are: communicative; cognitive (cognitive); nominative; accumulative.
The communicative function of language is related to the fact that language is primarily a means of communication between people. It allows one individual - the speaker - to express his thoughts, and the other - the perceiver - to understand them, that is, to somehow react, take note, change his behavior or his mental attitudes accordingly. The act of communication would not be possible without language.
Communication means communication, exchange of information. In other words, language arose and exists primarily so that people can communicate.
The communicative function of the language is carried out due to the fact that the language itself is a system of signs: it is simply impossible to communicate in another way. And the signs, in turn, are designed to transmit information from person to person.
The cognitive, or cognitive, function of language (from the Latin cognition - knowledge, cognition) is connected with the fact that human consciousness is realized or fixed in the signs of the language. Language is a tool of consciousness, reflects the results of human mental activity.
Any images and concepts of our consciousness are realized by ourselves and those around us only when they are clothed in a linguistic form. Hence the idea of the inseparable connection between thinking and language.
The connection between language and thought has been established even with the help of physiometric evidence. The test person was asked to think about some difficult task, and while he was thinking, special sensors took data from speech apparatus a silent person (from the larynx, tongue) and found the nervous activity of the speech apparatus. That is, the mental work of the subjects "out of habit" was reinforced by the activity of the speech apparatus.
The nominative function of language follows directly from the cognitive one. Known must be called, given a name. The nominative function is associated with the ability of language signs to symbolically designate things.
The name allows you to fix what is already known. Without a name, any known fact of reality, any thing would remain in our minds as a one-time accident. Naming words, we create our own - understandable and convenient picture of the world.
The act of naming is of great importance in a person's life. When we encounter something, we first of all name it. Otherwise, we can neither comprehend what we meet ourselves, nor convey a message about it to other people. The accumulative function of the language is associated with the most important purpose of the language - to collect and store information, evidence of human cultural activity. Language lives much longer than a man and sometimes even longer than entire nations. The so-called dead languages are known, which survived the peoples who spoke these languages. Nobody speaks these languages, except for specialists who study them.
The process of accumulation and exchange of information is even more accelerated due to the increasing introduction of new high-speed information technologies into our lives.
All gigantic volumes of information produced by mankind exist in linguistic form. In other words, any fragment of this information can in principle be spoken and perceived by both contemporaries and descendants. This is the accumulative function of language, with the help of which mankind accumulates and transmits information both in modern times and in a historical perspective - along the relay race of generations.
Various researchers highlight many more important functions of the language.
Phatic (contact-establishing) - the function of creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors (greeting formulas at a meeting and parting, exchange of remarks about the weather, etc.). Communication occurs for the sake of communication and is mainly unconsciously (rarely consciously) aimed at establishing or maintaining contact. The content and form of phatic communication depend on gender, age, social status, interlocutor relationships, but in general such communication is standard and minimally informative. The standard, superficiality of phatic communication helps to establish contacts between people, overcome disunity and lack of communication skills;
Emotive (emotionally-expressive) - an expression of the subjective-psychological attitude of the author of the speech to its content. It is realized in the means of evaluation, intonation, exclamation, interjections;
Conative - the function of assimilation of information by the addressee, associated with empathy (the magical power of spells or curses in an archaic society or advertising texts in a modern one);
Appellative - the function of an appeal, an inducement to one or another action (forms of the imperative mood, incentive sentences);
Aesthetic - a function of aesthetic impact, manifested in the fact that speakers begin to notice the text itself, its sound and verbal texture. A single word, turn, phrase begins to like or dislike. The aesthetic attitude towards language means, therefore, that speech (namely, speech itself, and not what is reported) can be perceived as beautiful or ugly, i.e. as an aesthetic object. The aesthetic function of language, being the main one for a literary text, is also present in everyday speech, manifesting itself in its rhythm and imagery.
Summing up, it can be noted that all functions are reduced to four main ones.
The communicative function provides social connections, life in society.
The cognitive function provides thinking, cognition and orientation in the world.
The nominative function names objects and phenomena.
The accumulative function ensures the continuity of knowledge and the existence of man in history.
Thus, the language is multifunctional. He accompanies a person in a variety of life circumstances. With the help of language, a person learns the world, remembers the past and dreams of the future, studies and teaches, works, communicates with others.
Particular language features can be distinguished for various reasons. We, following R. Yakobson, distinguish particular functions on the basis of the sign of allocation, aspectation in the language activity of one of the components of the speech act. In the structure of speech communication R.O. Jacobson identifies the following as the most important components: addressee sends message to the addressee; in order for the message to perform its functions, it is necessary context in question ( referent), the context must be perceived by the addressee, for this you need the code, common to communicants, and contact, i.e. a certain type of connection.
Message
Addresser Context (referent) Addressee
Each of these six factors corresponds to a particular particular function of language. The differences between the messages are not in the exclusive manifestation of any one function, but in their different hierarchy. The verbal structure of the message depends primarily on the predominant function that is realized within the given text. Private language features have specialized means of expression.
1. The referential function is to convey information about extralinguistic reality, which is the central task of many messages.
First of all, lexemes with a direct nominative non-expressive meaning are oriented towards the performance of this function.
2. The emotive or expressive function is realized in statements focused on the addresser. At the same time, the linguistic statement aims at a direct expression of the speaker's attitude to what he is talking about. It is associated with the desire to express certain emotions. First of all, interjections are focused on the performance of this function.
However, as R. Jacobson emphasizes, the emotive function colors colors to a certain extent all our statements - at the sound, grammatical and lexical levels. Analyzing a language in terms of the information it conveys, we must not limit the concept of information to logical content. When a person uses the expressive elements of language to express anger or joy, he is certainly conveying information.
Differences between big and bi:g with an emphatically stretched vowel is a conditional language code feature, just like the difference between short and long vowels in Czech vi « you" and vi: "knows". The second difference is phonemic, the first is emotive.
K. Stanislavsky offered the actor to make 40 different messages from the phrase “tonight”, changing their expressive coloring. The audience decoded them. All emotive features are subject to linguistic analysis (R. Jacobson).
3. The conative function is to orient the message to the addressee. This function finds its purely grammatical expression in the vocative and imperative, which differ syntactically, morphologically, and often phonologically from the narrative forms. These latter may be true or false, but the former may not.
4. When implementing a spell function, a third person turns into an addressee. This function is implemented in spell formulas, conspiracies: Let this barley come down soon, pah, pah. Ugh!
5. The contact-establishing function is realized in statements aimed at maintaining contact. There are messages whose main purpose is to establish, continue or interrupt communication, to establish whether the communication channel is working: Hello, can you hear me?
This function is the first to be mastered by children, the desire to enter into communication appears earlier than the ability to transmit or perceive information.
6. A metalanguage function is implemented if the speaker or listener needs to check whether they are using the same code. In this case, the code itself becomes the subject of speech.
7. The poetic function is actualized when the communicative act is directed to the message as such, while focusing on the message for its own sake. A vivid example of the embodiment of this function is poetic works.
3. The sign aspect of the language
3.1. Sign definition
Reality is perceived by a person not only directly, but also to a large extent through various signs. In relationships between people, signs play a decisive role. The more developed a person, the community of intelligent people, the more information he receives from the perception of signs, the more sign systems he lives in. We encounter a sign in those cases when, instead of one object, phenomenon, action, we perceive another material fact that replaces this reality and carries certain information about it. The sign has meaning only in a certain system.
Sign is a material, sensually perceived object (phenomenon, action), acting in the process of cognition and communication as a representative (substitute) of another object and used to receive, store, transform and transmit information about it.
The essence of the sign is to replace and represent things and facts, it is characterized primarily by the fact that it is a sign something. The sign representation of a thing or fact can be different both in form and in content. As a result, deep differences exist within the realm of signs.
Signs replace objects, phenomena, events to which they point and which they name. Such a substitution in people's lives takes place quite often, so that involuntarily one might get the impression that people live not only and not so much in the world of things, but in the world of signs.
“It is enough to take a closer look, at least with some attention, at our behavior, at the conditions of intellectual and social life, at family and kinship relations and at relations in the sphere of production and exchange, as we will see that at any moment we use several systems of signs at once: first of all, signs of language , the mastery of which begins the earliest; signs of writing; signs of courtesy; traffic signs; signs indicating the social status of a person; banknotes; cult, religious signs; signs of art in all their varieties. It is impossible to abolish one of the systems so as not to endanger the balance of society ”(E. Benveniste).
Signs and the sign systems formed by them are studied by semiotics (semiology). C. Pierce, C. Morris, F. de Saussure, L. Hjelmslev, E. Benveniste and others made a great contribution to the development of this science.
The function of language as a scientific concept is a practical manifestation of the essence of language, the realization of its purpose in the system of social phenomena, the specific action of language, due to its very nature, something without which language cannot exist, just as matter does not exist without movement.
Communicative and cognitive functions are the main ones. They are almost always present in speech activity, therefore they are sometimes called language functions, in contrast to other, not so mandatory, speech functions.
The Austrian psychologist, philosopher and linguist Karl Buhler, describing in his book "Theory of Language" the various directions of the signs of the language, defines 3 main functions of the language:
) The function of expression, or expressive function, when the state of the speaker is expressed.
) The function of calling, addressing the listener, or appellative function. 3) The function of presentation, or representative, when one says or tells something to another.
Functions of the language according to the Reformed. There are other points of view on the functions performed by the language, for example, as Reformatsky A.A. understood them. 1) Nominative, that is, the words of the language can name things and phenomena of reality. 2) Communicative; proposals serve this purpose. 3) Expressive, thanks to it the emotional state of the speaker is expressed. Within the framework of the expressive function, one can also single out a deictic (pointing) function that combines some elements of the language with gestures.
Communicative function Language is connected with the fact that language is primarily a means of communication between people. It allows one individual - the speaker - to express his thoughts, and the other - the perceiver - to understand them, that is, to somehow react, take note, change his behavior or his mental attitudes accordingly. The act of communication would not be possible without language.
Communication means communication, exchange of information. In other words, language arose and exists primarily so that people can communicate.
The communicative function of the language is carried out due to the fact that the language itself is a system of signs: it is simply impossible to communicate in another way. And the signs, in turn, are designed to transmit information from person to person.
Linguistic scholars, following the prominent researcher of the Russian language, Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov (1895-1969), sometimes define the main functions of the language in a slightly different way. They distinguish: - a message, that is, a presentation of some thought or information; - influence, that is, an attempt to change the behavior of the perceiving person with the help of verbal persuasion;
communication, that is, the exchange of messages.
Message and influence are related to monologue speech, and communication - to dialogic speech. Strictly speaking, these are, indeed, functions of speech. If we talk about the functions of the language, then the message, and the impact, and communication are the implementation of the communicative function of the language. The communicative function of language is more comprehensive in relation to these functions of speech.
Linguistic scientists also single out sometimes, and not unreasonably, the emotional function of language. In other words, signs, sounds of language often serve people to convey emotions, feelings, states. As a matter of fact, it is with this function, most likely, that the human language began. Moreover, in many social or herd animals, it is the transmission of emotions or states (anxiety, fright, appeasement) that is the main way of signaling. With emotionally colored sounds, exclamations, animals notify their fellow tribesmen about the found food or the approaching danger. In this case, it is not information about food or danger that is transmitted, but the emotional state of the animal, corresponding to satisfaction or fear. And even we understand this emotional language of animals - we can quite understand the alarmed barking of a dog or the purring of a contented cat.
Of course, the emotional function of human language is much more complex, emotions are conveyed not so much by sounds as by the meaning of words and sentences. Nevertheless, this ancient function of language probably dates back to the pre-symbolic state of human language, when sounds did not symbolize, did not replace emotions, but were their direct manifestation.
However, any manifestation of feelings, direct or symbolic, also serves to communicate, transfer it to fellow tribesmen. In this sense, the emotional function of language is also one of the ways to implement the more comprehensive communicative function of language. So, various types of implementation of the communicative function of the language are message, influence, communication, as well as the expression of feelings, emotions, states.
cognitive, or cognitive, The function of language (from the Latin cognition - knowledge, cognition) is connected with the fact that human consciousness is realized or fixed in the signs of the language. Language is a tool of consciousness, reflects the results of human mental activity.
Scientists have not yet come to an unambiguous conclusion about what is primary - language or thinking. Perhaps the question itself is wrong. After all, words not only express our thoughts, but the thoughts themselves exist in the form of words, verbal formulations, even before their oral pronunciation. At least, no one has yet been able to fix the pre-verbal, pre-linguistic form of consciousness. Any images and concepts of our consciousness are realized by ourselves and those around us only when they are clothed in a linguistic form. Hence the idea of the inseparable connection between thinking and language.
The connection between language and thought has been established even with the help of physiometric evidence. The subject was asked to think over some difficult task, and while he was thinking, special sensors took data from the speech apparatus of a silent person (from the larynx, tongue) and detected the nervous activity of the speech apparatus. That is, the mental work of the subjects "out of habit" was reinforced by the activity of the speech apparatus.
Curious evidence is provided by observations of the mental activity of polyglots - people who can speak well in many languages. They admit that in each case they "think" in one language or another. An illustrative example of the intelligence officer Stirlitz from the famous movie - after many years of work in Germany, he caught himself "thinking in German."
The cognitive function of language not only allows you to record the results of mental activity and use them, for example, in communication. It also helps to understand the world. A person's thinking develops in the categories of language: realizing new concepts, things and phenomena for himself, a person names them. And in doing so, he organizes his world. This function of the language is called nominative (naming objects, concepts, phenomena).
nominative the function of language follows directly from the cognitive one. Known must be called, given a name. The nominative function is associated with the ability of language signs to symbolically designate things. The ability of words to symbolically replace objects helps us create our second world - separate from the first, physical world. The physical world does not lend itself well to our manipulations. You don't move mountains with your hands. But the second, symbolic world - it is completely ours. We take it with us wherever we want and do whatever we want with it.
There is an important difference between the world of physical realities and our symbolic world, which reflects the physical world in the words of the language. The world, symbolically reflected in words, is a known, mastered world. The world is known and mastered only when it is named. The world without our names is alien, like a distant unknown planet, there is no man in it, human life is impossible in it.
The name allows you to fix what is already known. Without a name, any known fact of reality, any thing would remain in our minds as a one-time accident. Naming words, we create our own - understandable and convenient picture of the world. Language gives us canvas and paints. It is worth noting, however, that not everything, even in the known world, has a name. For example, our body - we "face" with it daily. Every part of our body has a name. And what is the name of the part of the face between the lip and nose, if there is no mustache? No way. There is no such name. What is the top of the pear called? What is the name of the pin on the belt buckle that fixes the length of the belt? Many objects or phenomena seem to be mastered by us, used by us, but do not have names. Why is the nominative function of the language not implemented in these cases?
This is the wrong question. The nominative function of the language is still implemented, just in a more sophisticated way - through description, not naming. With words, we can describe anything, even if there are no separate words for this. Well, those things or phenomena that do not have their own names simply “did not deserve” such names. This means that such things or phenomena are not so significant in the everyday life of the people that they were given their own name (like the same collet pencil). In order for an object to receive a name, it is necessary for it to enter into public use, to step over a certain “threshold of significance”. Until some time, it was still possible to get by with a random or descriptive name, but from now on it is no longer possible - a separate name is needed. The act of naming is of great importance in a person's life. When we encounter something, we first of all name it. Otherwise, we can neither comprehend what we meet ourselves, nor convey a message about it to other people. It was with the inventing of names that the biblical Adam began. Robinson Crusoe first of all called the rescued savage Friday. Travelers, botanists, zoologists of the times of great discoveries were looking for something new and gave this new name and description. Approximately the same is done by the type of activity and innovation manager. On the other hand, the name also determines the fate of the thing named.
accumulative the function of the language is connected with the most important purpose of the language - to collect and store information, evidence of human cultural activity. Language lives much longer than a person, and sometimes even longer than entire nations. The so-called dead languages are known, which survived the peoples who spoke these languages. Nobody speaks these languages, except for specialists who study them. The most famous "dead" language is Latin. Due to the fact that for a long time it was the language of science (and earlier - the language of a great culture), Latin is well preserved and widespread enough - even a person with a secondary education knows a few Latin sayings. Living or dead languages keep the memory of many generations of people, the evidence of centuries. Even when oral tradition is forgotten, archaeologists can discover ancient writings and use them to reconstruct the events of bygone days. Over the centuries and millennia of mankind, a huge amount of information has been accumulated, produced and recorded by man in different languages of the world.
All gigantic volumes of information produced by mankind exist in linguistic form. In other words, any fragment of this information can in principle be spoken and perceived by both contemporaries and descendants. This is the accumulative function of language, with the help of which mankind accumulates and transmits information both in modern times and in a historical perspective - along the relay race of generations.
Various researchers highlight many more important functions of the language. For example, language plays an interesting role in establishing or maintaining contacts between people. Returning from work with a neighbor in the elevator, you can say to him: “Something was out of season today, huh, Arkady Petrovich?” In fact, both you and Arkady Petrovich have just been outside and are well aware of the state of the weather. Therefore, your question has absolutely no information content, it is informationally empty. It performs a completely different function - phatic, that is, contact-establishing. With this rhetorical question, you are actually once again confirming to Arkady Petrovich the good neighborly status of your relations and your intention to maintain this status. If you write down all your remarks in a day, then you will see that a considerable part of them are pronounced for this very purpose - not to convey information, but to certify the nature of your relationship with the interlocutor. And what words are said at the same time - the second thing. This is the most important function of the language - to certify the mutual status of the interlocutors, to maintain certain relations between them. For a person, a social being, the phatic function of language is very important - it not only stabilizes people's attitude towards the speaker, but also allows the speaker himself to feel in society "their own". It is very interesting and revealing to analyze the implementation of the main functions of the language on the example of such a specific type of human activity as innovation.
Of course, innovation activity is impossible without the implementation of the communicative function of the language. Setting research tasks, working in a team, checking research results, setting implementation tasks and monitoring their implementation, simple communication in order to coordinate the actions of participants in the creative and work process - all these actions are unthinkable without the communicative function of the language. And it is in these actions that it is realized.
The cognitive function of language is of particular importance for innovation. Thinking work, highlighting key concepts, abstracting technological principles, analyzing oppositions and contiguity phenomena, fixing and analyzing an experiment, translating engineering tasks into a technological and implementation plane - all these intellectual actions are impossible without the participation of the language, without the implementation of its cognitive function.
And special tasks are solved by the language when it comes to fundamentally new technologies that have no precedent, that is, they do not have, respectively, operational, conceptual names. In this case, the innovator acts as the Demiurge, the mythical creator of the Universe, who establishes connections between objects and comes up with completely new names for both objects and connections. In this work, the nominative function of the language is realized. And the further life of his innovations depends on how literate and skillful an innovator will be. Will his followers and implementers understand it or not? If new names and descriptions of new technologies do not take root, then the technologies themselves are likely not to take root either. No less important is the accumulative function of the language, which ensures the work of the innovator twice: firstly, it provides him with the knowledge and information accumulated by his predecessors, and secondly, it accumulates his own results in the form of knowledge, experience and information. Actually, in a global sense, the accumulative function of language ensures the scientific, technical and cultural progress of mankind, since it is thanks to it that every new knowledge, every bit of information is firmly established on a wide foundation of knowledge obtained by its predecessors. And this grandiose process does not stop for a minute.
language communication cognitive dialogic
The subject of phonetics. Aspects of the study of speech sounds and sound units of the language. Phonology. Phonetics (from other Greek phone sound, voice) is the science of the sound material of a language, the use of this material in meaningful units of language and speech, and history. changes in this material and in the methods of its use. Sounds and other sound units (syllables) and phenomena (stress, intonation) are studied by phonetics from different aspects: 1) with "." their physical (acoustic) features 2) with "." work, production by the person who uttered them. and auditory perception, i.e. in biological aspect 3) with "." their use. in the language, their role in ensuring the functioning of the language as a means of communication.
The last aspect, cat. can be called functional, stood out in a special region-t-phonology, cat. yavl. an inseparable part and organizing core of phonetics.
^ 10. Acoustic. aspect of the study of speech sounds.
Each sound uttered in speech is an oscillatory movement transmitted through elastic. environment (air) and perceive. hearing. This is fluctuation. movement is characterized by def. acoustic cv-you, review. cat. and is acoustic. aspect.
If the vibrations are uniform, periodic, then the sound is called a tone, if unequal, non-periodic, then noise. Vowel-tones, deaf. acc.-noises, in sonatas tone prevails over noise, in a call. noisy - noise over tone.
Sounds character. height, hovering on the frequency of oscillations (the more oscillations, the higher the sound), and the force depending on the amplitude of the oscillations. Naib. important for language yavl. timbre difference, i.e. their specific coloration. It is the timbre that distinguishes from a, etc. Spec. the timbre of each sound is created by the resonant characteristics. Spectrum - decomposition of sound into tones with selection of frequency concentration bands (formants)
^ 11. The biological aspect of the study of speech sounds. The device of the speech apparatus and the functions of its parts.
The biological aspect is subdivided into pronunciation and perceptual.
Pronunciation- to pronounce this or that sound it is necessary: 1) def. an impulse sent from the motor center of speech (Broca's area) head. brain, find. in the 3rd frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere 2) transmission of this impulse along the nerves to the organs, performed. this command 3) in large. cases-difficult work of the respiratory apparatus (lungs, bronchi and trachea) + diaphragm and the entire chest. cells 4) difficult. the work of the pronunciation organs in narrow. sense (ligaments, tongue, lips, palatine curtain, pharyngeal walls, movement of the lower jaw) - articulation.
^ Pronunciation functions. organs( divided into assets. and passive.)
2) supraglottic cavities (cavity of the pharynx, mouth, nose) perform functions. a movable resonator that creates resonator tones. When images. according to an obstacle (gap, bow).
3) language is able to take different positions. Changes the degree of lifting, is pulled back, compressed into a ball in the rear. parts, served with the whole mass forward, approaching decomp. passive organs (sky, alvioli), forming either a bow or a gap. The tongue creates the phenomenon of palatalization.
4) lips (especially the lower one) - protruding forward and rounding, lengthen the total. the volume of the cavity, change its shape, creating labialized sounds; when pronouncing labial consonants. create an obstacle (labio-labial occlusive and fissured, labio-tooth fissured).
5) palatine curtain - takes a raised position, closing the passage into the nasal cavity, or, conversely, falls, connecting the nasal resonator.
6) tongue - when pronouncing a burry consonant
7) the back wall of the pharynx - when pron. pharyngeal acc. (English h).
^ 12. Articulatory (anatomical and physiological) classification of speech sounds (vowels and consonants).
1. vowels and consonants. when pronouncing. ch. there are no obstacles for air, they have no def. places of education, typical common. muscle tension pron. apparatus and relation. weak air flow. acc.-an obstacle arises, def. place image., muscular tension in the place image. barriers and stronger air. jet.
2. vowels according to the work of the tongue - a series (front, back, mixed + more fractional divisions), the degree of elevation of the tongue (open and closed ch.) Vowels according to the work of the lips - ogubl. and indestructible According to the work of the palatine curtain - non-nasal, nasal
In longitude, long and short.
4.Accord. according to the method arr. noise, by the nature of the barrier, are stop (explosive (n, t), affricates (s), implosive (there is neither an explosion, nor a transition to a gap, the pronunciation ends with a bow (m, n))), slot, trembling.
5.Accord. by actively articulating org.-labial (both lips, only the lower one), anterior lingual (active separate sections of the anterior part of the tongue), middle language, back language, uvular, pharyngeal, guttural.
6.Dr. signs according to - palatalization, velarization, labilization.
Phonemes
–these are the minimum units of the sound structure of a language that perform a certain function in a given language: they serve to fold and distinguish between the material shells of significant units of the language - morphemes, words.
Some functions of phonemes are already named in the definition. In addition, scientists call several more functions. So to the main functions of the phoneme
include the following:
1. constitutive (building) function;
2. distinctive (significative, distinctive) function;
3. perceptual function (identifying, that is, the function of perception);
4. delimitative function (delimiting, that is, capable of separating the beginnings and ends of morphemes and words).
As already mentioned, phonemes are one-sided units that have a plan of expression (exponent - according to Maslov), while they are not meaningful, although, according to L.V. Bondarko, phonemes are potentially associated with meaning: they refer to semantics. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that there are one-phonemic words or morphemes, for example, prepositions, endings, etc.
For the first time, the concept of a phoneme was introduced into linguistics by the Russian scientist I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. Using the term used by the French. linguist L. Ave in the meaning of "sound of speech", he connects the concept of a phoneme with its function in a morpheme. The doctrine of the phoneme was further developed in the works of N. V. Krushevsky, a student of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. A great contribution to the development of this issue was made by N. S. Trubetskoy, a St. Petersburg scientist, in the 20s of the twentieth century. emigrated abroad.
· the great mathematician Leonhard Euler wrote: “People need language so that they can follow their thoughts and develop them, as well as communicate with each other.”
Indeed, each new generation of a particular ethnic group, mastering the language, is attached to the knowledge of the surrounding reality, generally accepted norms of behavior, values rejected or accepted by the people.
Differ three main functions of the language, highlighted by L. Euler, are:
Thought tracking (support function);
Formation of inferences (logical function);
Means of communication (communication function).
thanks to these functions, the sign system turns into a language system. Once again, we will clarify that a language is not just a set of words, it is a structure built according to certain rules.
· The support function of language was first systematically studied by Gottlob Frege. He concluded that " When we reproduce a sign, we thereby create a certain support for our thought, a certain center around which various representations arise. From these representations we choose one and fix it again with the help of a sign.. Thus, the text is a sequence of such steps. Any text is a sequence of mental associations.
How is text formed in the mind? The formation of the text can be represented as a sequence of such mental acts:
Definition. The sign (symbolic) system used for such an organization of the structure of mental images that represents information is called a symbolic or sign language.
Language examples
1. Natural languages (languages used for human communication). A system of discrete sound signs "a", "b", "c", ..., which is a means of communication between people. Including sign language for the deaf and dumb.
2. Sign language, facial expressions.
3. The system of sequences of two characters "." and "-" (short and long signals) represents Morse code language. The unit of time is the duration of one point. The length of a dash is three dots. A pause between elements of the same character is one dot, between characters in a word is 3 dots, between words is 7 dots. Letter codes (actually "alphabet") were added by Morse's colleague, Alfred Weil - a fact that Morse subsequently denied in every possible way.
4. Symbolic languages
5. Including a system of signs representing musical sounds - notes.
6. Including programming languages, as well as any machine languages.
7. The language of painting
LANGUAGE MODELS
Each subject (literature, mathematics, music, etc.) has its own language. Moreover, each language can be represented in different ways. These different ways are called models, or implementations of the language.
Definition.Model is a way of representing objects and setting relationships between them. language model sets the way of forming words and texts from mental images.
It has already been said above that each language has its own representation of words and its own way of forming texts. In fact, even for different models of the same language, there is its own representation of words and its own way of forming texts.
Examples.
· Russian, English, Chinese - 3 different natural language models;
Sign language for the deaf and dumb is another model of natural language.
· In geometry, geometric and coordinate models of the mathematical language are used to represent flat and spatial figures;
Please note that languages can be interchangeable.
For example, the thought that we can express in Russian, we can express in English.
But the sign language for the deaf and dumb is somewhat poorer. It does not convey all information. Although there are about 3 thousand words and concepts in the sign language, which is used today by the hearing impaired. Names, proper names are "typed" using the finger alphabet. This language is constantly updated with new words-gestures.
Each of these models appeared as an implementation of the process of thinking in the form of text. Therefore, the text can be considered the main product of intellectual activity. Therefore, the study of the intellectual level of a person or text, the study of intellectual functions is the study of language products.
