The development of personal qualities of students of a special (correctional) general education school of the VIII type under the influence of a personality-oriented approach. Pedagogical project "Formation of personal qualities of children of primary preschool age Development of the necessary

Personal qualities:

Consciousness

habits; behavior

The educational process consists of two stages (Makarenko):

The stage of formation of personality consciousness

Methods of forming the consciousness of students are designed to transfer information from the teacher to the student and vice versa. Consciousness as knowledge and understanding is the basis of worldview, behavior, relationships, it is the intellectual basis of professional activity. The richer, fuller, deeper, more objective and more varied the information received, that is, the experience of generations, the more professional the future worker begins to act, the more intensively his general development proceeds.

Of this group of methods, the most common are conversation, instruction, storytelling, demonstration, and explanation. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

So you can consider each method and find that any of them has certain capabilities, its own zone of influence.

Methods for shaping behavior and activities are practical methods. Man is the subject of activity, including cognitive activity. Therefore, in the process of cognition, he is not only a contemplator, but also an actor. Behavior formation methods include: involvement in activities, play, reliance on experience, assignment, requirement, ritual, coercion, self-management, self-service, competition, competition, training, exercise, etc. These methods are used directly to form behavior, but indirectly they influence and the formation of human consciousness. Methods for the formation of feelings, i.e., stimulation of cognition and activity, are of an auxiliary nature and are used in unity with the methods of formation of consciousness and activity. To stimulate means to encourage, accelerate, improve the quality of cognitive and labor activity, create favorable conditions for it. Such stimulating methods include encouragement, censure, creating situations of success, relying on the positive in a person, control, self-control, evaluation and self-esteem, etc.

cognitive, labor and other activities of students, as well as testing the effectiveness of the methods used. Methods of control of cognitive and production activities are somewhat different. Cognitive activity control methods are oral survey (individual, frontal), checking notebooks, independent (control) work, laboratory control, offset, exam, etc. With their help, as a rule, the level of students' learning is revealed. Methods for monitoring labor activity are control with measuring instruments, control through practical application (manufactured part, repaired machine), as well as the creation of a technical control department, etc. There are methods for monitoring the results of extracurricular educational activities: the method of expert assessments, public opinion, questionnaire survey , conversation, methods for diagnosing the level of upbringing of students, etc.

The stage of formation of behavior, habits.

Primary acquaintance with the action and primary mastery. Familiarization can occur through demonstration, explanation, story, observation. On the basis of acquaintance, a primary, still general, schematic visual representation of the spatial and temporal features of the action is first formed - about the direction and amplitude of movements, their speed and sequence. In the process of further exercises, that is, repeated repetition of certain actions in order to consolidate and improve them, gradually the sequence of movements becomes more coordinated, and the actions are clearer and more confident. These experiences are reflected in the effectiveness of management, contributing to it or delaying it.

Movement automation. As a result of improvement, actions are accelerated and become easier. The disappearance of unnecessary movements and a decrease in tension during their execution. Movements are combined into a single whole act, and an act into an even more complex integral action.

The development of the internal qualities of a person occurs through the implementation of daily actions, and is the most important principle of self-development, because by developing certain qualities, we thereby create ourselves. If after that we clearly figured out exactly what actions our life would consist of, and began to apply this model, then in order to develop internal qualities, we need to do everything to support this model of life.

As we know, if a person is constantly late everywhere and forgets everything, then he is considered disorganized, and if, on the contrary, he manages to do everything on time, then such people are considered organized, punctual. From all this, it becomes clear that in order to acquire any inner quality, it is necessary to develop it and work it out, that is, to live in accordance with the characteristics of this personality quality.

Why is it necessary to develop the inner qualities of a person.

Each of us sets and will set different life goals, among which there may be many that are relatively high. To achieve many goals, it is necessary to have developed internal qualities, such as discipline, perseverance, courage, flexibility, patience,

Many goals require a lot of time, and consist of many small and monotonous steps that must be performed in order to achieve this very goal. If a person is not able to adhere to even the smallest daily program of actions, then his chances of achieving higher and more complex goals become completely miserable.

The main internal qualities of the personality.

• Responsibility
• self-discipline
• organization
• endurance (patience)

Responsibility is the ability to make commitments and fulfill them without shifting the blame to other people and circumstances in case of failure to fulfill obligations.

self-discipline or discipline - the ability to force oneself to act on the basis of a previously drawn up program of action, despite the psychological state and uncomfortable circumstances.

organization– the ability to act accurately and consistently without missing the necessary steps of the action program.

endurance (patience)- the ability to remain calm and adhere to the established plan, the ability to endure is necessary in the case when there is no result for a long time, or the situation develops according to an undesirable scenario.

Example.

You have completely painted your every day in a notebook, and for several days you have been following a new routine for yourself, namely, go to bed at the same time, get up, eat, run, and so on. But suddenly an unforeseen circumstance happens, and you have to go to bed four hours later than usual, and in the morning you feel that you have not recovered enough during sleep, and you want to sleep more. If at this moment you still get up and then do a morning run (or exercise), then you thereby develop in yourself such personality traits as discipline, organization, and you also develop the skill of self-control. If, on the contrary, you stay asleep, then you begin to develop such qualities as weak will, disorganization, self-pity, laziness, and so on. Thus, day after day, we either strengthen our inner qualities of personality, or weaken them, and consolidate the opposite qualities.

When you step over your weaknesses and fears, through your laziness, go beyond your own, then at this moment you are strengthening and strengthening your inner qualities, therefore, by your actions you yourself determine what kind of person you should be. If you can deceive other people and show certain personality traits to them, then you will not be able to deceive yourself, and you will always know your true face, so be honest with yourself, work conscientiously and only then you will get the result you deserve.
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The formation of personality traits is a systemic educational impact that leads to the desired sustainable behavior. Practically the same as upbringing personality traits. For example, education of responsibility, education of independence, education of adulthood...

It should be taken into account that, starting from the 80s of the 20th century in the Soviet Union and further in Russia, the word "formation" was, in fact, included in the list of forbidden words both in pedagogy and psychology. "Formation" began to be considered rigidly tied to the "subject-object" approach, which excludes the internal activity of the individual, and therefore the approach is unacceptable. It is permitted and recommended to speak of "development of personality traits", since this more reflects the "subject-subject" approach, namely the assumption that the child always cooperates with an adult in his growth and development.

What needs to be generated

Children and adults begin to behave as they should, as they are required to, when they have for this:

• necessary experience, skills and abilities,

Teach, give examples, support. Particular attention is given to the age of maximum susceptibility.

• the desired behavior has become habitual for them,

To do this, a person (child) must be involved in life and affairs where exactly such behavior occurs. Sometimes this can be provided by psychological methods, sometimes by administrative ones. It is better if this is provided by soft and flexible methods, but if necessary, methods can also be forceful, hard.

• they have an interest or benefit in behaving the way we want,

Persuasion helps, drawing attention to the benefits of the behavior we need. As well as creating situations where such interest appears.

• they have the corresponding life values: "It is necessary to be like this, it's good to be like that."

Samples and Suggestions

• they have a belief (beliefs) that in a given situation this is how they should behave,

Samples and Suggestions

• they have a personal self-identification "I am the one for whom such behavior is natural! I manage to be like that!"

Initiation

• the desired behavior of the child (adult) is reinforced and supported.

Public opinion and training

A skill is a skill developed by repeated repetition, a formed ability that allows you to achieve results in a certain type of activity. Human skills are exclusively acquired, any activity must be learned. There are no people who have any skills from birth, but definitely, each of us has more tendencies to develop some skills, and less to develop others. It is easier for someone to learn to draw or dance, for someone to program, and for someone, learning languages ​​or playing a musical instrument will be the fastest.

Personal skills are a set of individual skills necessary for life in modern society. They help us to cope with any daily tasks, interact with others and live a productive and fulfilling life.

Of great value for a person are also his professional skills, which make him an expert in any field, and help, having mastered a certain profession, to find a good job, earn money, and benefit society.

In addition to personal skills, each person has a set of individual personal qualities. The totality of personal skills and personality traits create a human character, which to a certain extent is inherent in us from birth, but is also formed and changed under the influence of the external environment and life circumstances. In many ways, this determines our future priorities and creates the foundation for what our life is likely to be. A person can follow his predetermined life scenario, or by showing willpower, and developing the necessary personal skills and qualities, change it at his own discretion, in accordance with his goals or dream!

Many experts are convinced that a person's character is formed in the first five years of his life. In the future, the character undergoes only minor adjustments under the influence of external circumstances. But at the age of five, hardly anyone begins to seriously think about what personal skills will help him or her in life. Although there are exceptions. For example, little Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, already at the age of 4, sat down at the harpsichord, and could have fun with the selection of harmonies for a long time. As it turned out later, it was these skills, as well as the development of a phenomenal ear for music, memory and the ability to improvise, that allowed Mozart to become one of the most famous composers in the world.

How do personal development skills help in life?

Modern society is so complex and multifaceted that hundreds of thousands of skills of different people are needed for its functioning. Just imagine any professional field of activity, for example, construction or medicine, and think about how many skills experts in these fields must have in order to successfully solve everyday problems. And these are just two areas. Now imagine how many professional fields there are in the world, and multiply this number by the required number of skills in each. Most likely you will not be able to calculate this, but they say that the answer is a figure consisting of more than ten digits.

The world needs a huge number of personal skills, and if all people agreed among themselves and everyone would develop those skills that are closer to him and help to contribute to the common cause, then we would have long ago revealed many of the mysteries of the universe and mastered life in neighboring galaxies.

But while we have huge social inequality in different countries and growing unemployment. Therefore, your choice regarding which personal and professional skills to develop is very important. This can either make you a sought-after and needed specialist in any country in the world, or provide you with a minimum wage and a small pension. You decide!

Throughout life, we master new skills and abilities, as a result of which there is a correction of character and life goals. One of the most important qualities that will bring incredible benefits to its owner can be identified life planning skills. In other words, it is the ability of a person to stick to the intended goal. Having this skill allows us to stick to the lifestyle we dream of building for ourselves and develop in the areas that we have chosen as priorities for ourselves.

Mastering new personal skills makes a person comprehensively developed. He learns to respond correctly to external stimuli and succeed in the chosen direction, no matter what, as well as to effectively use internal resources. Personal skills determine the success and uniqueness of an individual in many areas of human life. This also applies to the choice of style in clothing, and the development of a particular profession. A person who is clearly aware of the need to improve the quality of life will work in a given direction.

What is the difference between skills and personality traits?

To better understand yourself and others, you should pay special attention to the study of personality traits. This allows you to better understand the nature of other people, and gives you more opportunities to predict their behavior.

Personality qualities are repetitive human reactions, i.e. his behavior, which he demonstrates in certain situations, depending on the influence of the external environment and his own motives.

Personal qualities are associated with the characteristics of the type of the human nervous system, some of them directly depend on temperament, others can be developed through rewriting, or independent work on oneself.

Here are some examples of the skills and personality traits that are most useful and that employers are most likely to look for in candidates:

personality skills

personality traits

– Reading and writing skills - Knowledge of working with information - Communication skill - Ability to manage your emotions - Empathy and understanding of other people's emotions - Ability to plan and set goals - Skill of self-motivation – Decision making skill - Active listening skills - Ability to work in a team - Public speaking skill - Relationship building skills - First aid skills - Wildlife Survival Skill - Money management skills – Foreign language skills - Driving skill - Ability to multitask - Skill of self-organization

– Tranquility - Self-confidence - Responsibility – Punctuality – Goodwill - Politeness – Optimism – diligence - Attentiveness - Patience – Persistence – Purposefulness - Stress tolerance – Initiative – Energy – Diplomacy – Sociability – Independence

As you can see, personal qualities are the most representative of who we are, and personal skills reflect what we can do.

How is the formation of personal skills?

To start developing the necessary skills in yourself, it is enough to realize the need to live life at your own discretion, and not according to a scenario dictated by society or parents.

The formation of personality skills begins in early childhood in the process of interaction with relatives and society, as well as in the process of self-development. In preschool age, the development of personal skills, to a greater extent, depends on the family and the values ​​adopted in it. In the process of interaction with loved ones, the child begins to consider himself as an individual, learns to make responsible decisions and tries on various patterns of interaction with other people.

The skills and abilities of personality development are most actively mastered at the moment when the child realizes his uniqueness and begins to evaluate his place in the world around him. The start of such processes is evidenced by:

• appropriate and active use of personal pronouns in speech;

• mastering the skills of self-control and self-service (self-care);

• the ability to explain one's experiences and interpret the motivation of the actions performed.

These processes allow us to conclude that the active development of a child's personal skills begins at the age of 3-5 years. Until this age, in the mind of a small person, preparations are being made for subsequent work on the formation of one's own "I-concept".

At the initial stage, skills for personality development do not need to be adjusted. It is enough to create conditions for the harmonious development of intellectual, emotional and physical abilities. Gradually, the child, in a soft and unobtrusive form, gets acquainted with generally accepted behavioral norms. The family can be considered as an educational environment, which for a long time will be the main one, in terms of character formation, for the child.

In order to successfully develop the personal qualities of the child and form new ones, one should constantly involve him in active and creative activity.

When entering school, the skills of a small personality continue to be formed under the influence of the environment and the authority of adults: educators, coaches, teachers. If the educational process is organized correctly, then the formation and development of the child's personal qualities occurs in parallel with educational and cognitive activity. Responsibility, creativity and a number of other qualities are laid in the process of schooling.

The presence of friends and comrades inevitably affects the formed personal qualities. If a child learns in a class with many brilliant and precocious children, then his own development will be an order of magnitude faster. In elementary school, children learn to interact with each other, with people around them, choose the correct behavior patterns, and look for ways out of difficult situations.

Why is it better to develop professional skills from a young age?

Personal professional skills develop in parallel with personal. Their set determines the future field of activity and the possibility of realizing oneself as a good specialist. The sooner attention is paid to the chosen professional field and its skills, the faster it will be possible to achieve success in it. Now more and more often, children who have such an opportunity and aspirations graduate from school as an external student, while simultaneously mastering the disciplines chosen for the future, such as foreign languages, computer and gadget skills, programming, finance, marketing, and much more.

Young people are becoming more and more disillusioned with the school curriculum, and they are becoming aware of the value of professional skills, which they devote a lot of time to, and are making great strides in their development!

If we objectively look at the existing education system, then it is generally not aimed at creating the necessary set of professional and personal skills in a person, making him successful and competitive in the labor market. Rather, on the contrary, education is aimed at mastering basic concepts, at inculcating dogmas and rules that are convenient for society, and at creating an average citizen who is most likely to have difficulty finding a job and will have a low market value. And even more so practically nowhere they teach how to be a leader, how to create your own business, they do not provide the basics of financial literacy, because for many it is much more profitable for a young family to get into debt and take out a mortgage! And the sooner young people realize how they are really capable and want to be useful, the more successful their professional and personal life will be.

The formation of personal and professional skills consists of the following stages:

• Determination of the future field of activity based on personal preference. The individual chooses not only his path in life, but also his profession.

• Adaptation to the conditions of subsequent development. These conditions are initially unknown to a person, so he receives huge amounts of information about the work to be done and the qualities necessary for success.

• Stabilization of the learning or development process, obtaining certain practical skills and awareness of compliance with oneself and the chosen profession. In the future, success will be determined not by natural data, but by the readiness for constant work on oneself and self-improvement.

• Targeted work on a selected range of personal and professional skills built on a systematic basis, and ideally carried out with the support of experienced mentors, mentors or coaches who help track the dynamics of the development of the entire set of skills, and provide high-quality developmental feedback.

An effective tool for helping young people to pass through these stages are professional career planning trainings, as well as interpersonal trainings that allow you to introspect your talents, inclinations, existing qualities, and form an attractive vision of your professional future!

Many aspirations and hopes of a person are connected with his future work, since we spend most of our lives in work. According to a set of professional skills, the degree of compliance of a person with the position he occupies is assessed, and according to a set of personal skills, his potential is assessed. To achieve some success, it is also important to adequately perceive yourself as part of a team. If a person has well-developed communication and team skills, then he can easily take root in any team and quickly build the necessary relationships with other people! Such an employee knows perfectly well how to proceed further, and what is necessary to move up the career ladder.

What skills have helped famous people succeed?

Self-confidence and belief in one's own This is the belief of many famous people who have managed to achieve their goals and proudly consider themselves successful people.

At the same time, it is important not only to develop personal growth skills, but also radically change their perception of the surrounding reality. It is necessary to get rid of the complexes, prejudices and fears that prevent most of us from moving towards our goal. A person achieves success in the process of painstaking work, only a few can boast of banal luck.

Many people who built a successful business from the ground up didn't win the lottery or inherit a million dollars. They relied on their own: creativity, uniqueness, diligence, the desire to realize themselves in the area of ​​interest to them and the opportunity to bring maximum benefit to society and their clients. The secret of their success lies in the ability to correctly set a goal, find the right resources and choose the best strategy.

Modern business knows many examples when businesswomen, people with disabilities, people from poor families managed to achieve incredible success in their business. One of these world-famous entrepreneurs is Sergey Brin. He is one of the founders of Google and has long been a billionaire. Sergei was born in Moscow into a poor family of mathematicians who decided to move to the United States. While studying at Stanford University, Brin, along with a friend, set about developing a search engine. Their offspring has successfully passed testing at the university level, investors have appeared who are ready to develop the project. Seven years have passed, and the names of young developers entered the Forbes list.

Another example: a successful US TV presenter, Oprah Winfrey, became a billionaire through hard work. She was born into a poor African-American family of a maid and a miner, so she relied only on her own punchy character and desire to achieve a lot in this life.

Ruth Hendler also repeatedly indicated her versatile personal skills in her resume for finding a decent job, but the success of the American entrepreneur after a long series of failures brought her childhood dream come true: the creation of a doll for children named Barbie. Ruth then repeatedly assured that:

Success comes to those who are able to find the strength in themselves to rise after a fall and continue moving towards the intended goal.

Handler was born in 1916. In a family of immigrants in the United States. As the tenth child, she worked from an early age. Hard work and dedication paid off. In 1959, Ruth invented Barbie, and since then, her family business has become a multi-million dollar business. This American businesswoman needed a single creative idea and the ability to find a way out of absolutely hopeless situations in order to ensure a decent life for herself and her entire family.

The resounding success of Ruth did not pass without a trace. In 1970 She was diagnosed with breast cancer, in parallel she was accused of financial fraud and sentenced to a suspended sentence. These circumstances did not make the woman fall into despair. After losing her position at her former company, Hendler founded a new one - for the manufacture of prosthetic breasts - and returned to the pinnacle of success again.

Each company is individual, has an established corporate culture, and most often looks for people in its team with the most similar set of personal skills to most employees, while sharing similar corporate values.

If we consider this issue as a whole, then the most important business skills and qualities that a person will need to successfully move up the career ladder include:

• professional maturity (introspection and self-criticism, the ability to listen to other people's opinions, the ability to subordinate one's own interests to the interests of the organization);

• responsible attitude to work and colleagues (hard work, sensitive and attentive attitude towards people, a developed sense of personal responsibility, personal discipline);

• a decent level of highly specialized knowledge (qualifications in accordance with the position held, the presence of a minimum set of knowledge for the successful performance of one's job duties, the ability to use advanced technology in one's work);

• organizational skills (the ability to organize one's own work, interact with managers and subordinates, correctly express thoughts in any business conversation and when writing correspondence, build relationships with other departments and organize an effective exchange of information).

For persons applying for a leadership position, the following are also of particular importance:

• the ability to make the right decisions in a timely manner;

• the ability to control the execution of decisions properly;

• the ability to instantly orient in a difficult situation and find a way out with the least losses;

• self-control;

• self-confidence;

• the ability to see new technologies in a timely manner, evaluate their benefits, implement them in work;

• initiative and leadership;

• the ability to create a close-knit team around oneself;

• Willingness to take reasonable risks.

What personal skills help people in family life?

The basis of a happy and successful marriage is a responsible attitude to the duties assumed. This quality is equally necessary to develop for both men and women, since the family is a balanced system of two loving energies, which gives synergy only with the mutual and full interaction of partners with each other.

The next important skill is the desire for constant self-improvement. If the spouses do not devote time to their development, do not help each other to become better, then such a marriage sooner or later goes into a stage of stagnation. Simply put, it begins to resemble broken crutches, with which it is already less convenient to walk than without them, but at the same time it is a pity to quit!

No less dangerous for further family life is male anger and female resentment. For this reason, it is important to learn to let go of these qualities. Actions taken at the moment of strong resentment or anger can lead to irreparable consequences. Not always the wounds left by them on the soul of a loved one are able to heal.

Self-giving and caring for each other in a relationship is a skill that both spouses must master. The ability to share only strengthens the family.

Among other personal skills that will help in creating a happy family, one can name: developed self-control, trust and openness, fulfillment of obligations and promises.

The formation of the necessary skills is a process that includes several stages. It involves hard work on your own consciousness.

Initially, it is important to set the right goal that you are striving to achieve. The formation of personal skills is the result of repeated repetition of certain actions.

There are three ways to develop personal skills:

1) Independent work on selected skills

2) Skill building with the support of a coach or mentor

3) Participation in trainings on the formation of personal and professional skills

Consider the pros and cons of each method:

Independent work on selected skills
- The most affordable way - For free - Work at any time of the day	– Low rate of skill development – There is a high probability that you will quit classes without bringing the skills to the desired level – Lack of developmental feedback – Lack of opportunity to ask questions – Lack of competent support and help from professionals – The longest way to develop skills

If you decide to work on your skills yourself, then make a written action plan, set deadlines and start implementing it as soon as possible!

Skill building with the support of a coach or mentor
– The most adapted way to your needs and requirements – Maximum consideration of your features and abilities – Individual approach – Developmental feedback – High speed of skill development – Reducing the risk of quitting what you started and the opportunity to bring the development of the skill to the desired level - Coaching to the point – Help and support after training	– It is not easy to find a good mentor or coach – The need to pay for the lesson or you need to somehow interest the coach so that he takes you as a student for free – Classes according to the schedule to be followed - To achieve results, you will need regularity and a certain number of classes, which depends on the complexity of the skill, and the level to which you want to bring it.

If you want to work with a mentor or coach, start by finding experts in your area of ​​expertise.

Participation in trainings on the formation of personal and professional skills
– The fastest way to develop skills. Standard training is usually designed for 1-3 days, after which you get the necessary skills and tips for developing them. – All relevant and valuable information on the topics you need, which is already collected for you in advance – An experienced coach or coaches who will teach you what you already know and demonstrate how to use the skills you need – The presence of practical tasks, performing which you immediately get the result – Availability of handouts and materials for self-study after the training – At the trainings, a person learns both from the trainer and from other participants, each of whom shares his invaluable experience – Opportunity to communicate with like-minded people who have similar goals and help each other – Receiving a large charge of motivation and energy from the training, which helps to achieve further goals – The opportunity to find friends who will stay with you after the training for life – Post-training support from trainers and other participants – Obtaining a certificate of completion of the training (perhaps this will be useful to you when looking for a job)	– All such trainings are paid, at free trainings you will most likely hear a lot of advertising and get little benefit – You will have to spend time to find and choose a good training – It is possible that the required training will not be available in your city, but in this case it is worth considering other cities or find out if online training is provided to develop the skills you need.

Participation in any training is a whole event that can certainly change your life for the better! The most important thing is to choose an effective training that has already really helped many other people, and take participation in it with all seriousness! This is a big and interesting work that can bring maximum results!

Why do you need personal development skills?

Mastering the skills of personal growth helps us become successful in this life. We develop qualities that help improve one or more areas of life: social, cultural or any other.

Personal growth of a person is aimed at increasing human potential and performance in the chosen area of ​​life.

The concept of personal growth, based on the ideas of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, is based on the fact that human nature is initially positive and creative, and the meaning of human life lies in self-development, exploration of oneself and the world around, development of one's personal skills, and disclosure of one's talents. This approach is the exact opposite of classical Freudianism, and a number of religious teachings that declare that a person is inherently sinful, bad and needs not so much development as restrictions and correction.

Intelligence. Body. Soul.

Which of the chosen concepts to take on faith, everyone decides for himself. For those people who are closer to the positive nature of a person, it is also important to develop personal growth skills, which include: studying their characteristics, understanding themselves and their emotions, discovering their talents, searching for new interests, the ability to understand and respond to the emotions of other people, skills empathy, trust, forgiveness, building relationships, inner freedom and independence, love for others, for nature, for the Universe. Many personal growth skills are intertwined with the ideas of various religious teachings.

Both believers and atheists agree that personal growth skills improve and make the lives of modern people more harmonious.

This is especially true now in the era of consumption, when most companies are trying to manipulate customers, using advertising and propaganda, to replace the true values ​​with imposed desires, in order to encourage them to acquire more unnecessary material values, earning money for which a person wastes his life aimlessly!

What personal skills are best reflected in a resume?

To get your dream job, it's important to first make a list of all the significant skills you have. After that, choose from them those that, in your opinion, are best suited for this work. For example, for applicants for the position of sales manager, the following are of particular importance:

• sociability;

• the ability to persuade one's own point of view;

• broad horizons;

• the ability to build friendly relationships with people;

• stress tolerance;

• initiative;

• Ability to multitask effectively.

It is important for anyone who claims to be a leader to develop their managerial and analytical skills, to be able to show loyalty, perseverance and decency. A lawyer must have virtuoso skills in interpreting and juggling various articles of laws, and the ability to find solutions to difficult problems.

If you are having difficulty analyzing your personality traits, then you can make it even easier.

Go to any job search site, look at the vacancies you are interested in, and write down from there all the skills that employers list in their requirements.

After that, choose those that you have developed the most and include them in your resume. In this case, you can find a new employer as quickly as possible. The main thing is not to exaggerate much, and do not indicate in the resume the presence of those skills that you do not have. Indeed, during the interview or in further work, you will not be able to demonstrate them, and you will encounter problems.

How do personal skills change over time?

Each age of a person needs a different set of skills. Over time, our goals and needs are transformed. This happens both under the influence of external factors and in accordance with our internal changes. The relevance of some skills is lost, while others increase. Such changes are inevitable, because life does not stand still. It should also be remembered that in the process of life, a person goes through a series of psychological crises, for example, in adolescence. Many people are familiar with the concept of “mid-life crisis”. There are quite a few reasons for this, mainly due to the fact that a person’s expectations are too different from the surrounding reality.

People who have fairly well developed personality skills can deal with any such crisis fairly quickly.

If certain personality skills are poorly developed, then this can lead to temporary apathy, depression, bad mood, lack of motivation. In this state, a person may feel unhappy, but it can be avoided by taking time to work on yourself and your own development. Mental and personal health is just as important as physical health. Happier feel those people who strive for balance and harmony in life, paying attention to the body, and mind, and soul.

Thus, the presence of certain personal skills is the result of a long and laborious work. Set a goal, visualize who or what you want to be, and boldly move in that direction: identify the skills you want and start practicing them. Regularity is important in this matter, since a skill is formed by repeated repetition of the necessary actions. This job is much more pleasant than the one for which many wake up every morning, and it will help you get a completely different quality of life and feel like a successful person.

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Introduction

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

As a social phenomenon and a sphere of human practice, management appearedlong before it became the subject of scientific research.

People have the ability and need to work together, and this requirescoordination of their actions, coordination, cooperation, i.e. management of joint activities. At all stages of the formation of society, the problem of management was quite acute and many tried to solve it, but their works did not constitute a generalized theory. And only in the second half of the 19th century, after the victory of the industrial revolution in the West, the situation changed, because. large firms demanded a large number of senior and middle managers, capable of making competent management decisions, able to work with people, competent and able to measure their activities with existing laws.

The relevance of this topic is due to the fact that the central place in the process of solving many management problems in a school belongs to a person - the head of the school, who has to face the increasing complexity of new tasks and bear increasing responsibility for their solution and final results. And it is very important to find out how the head of the school solves complex problems, what personal characteristics allow him to find optimal solutions, make him a professional in his field, how to develop these qualities.

The problem of professionalism interests many scientists. Numerous empirical studies have been devoted to elucidating the influence of certain qualities on the effectiveness of leadership. So, as a result of a huge analytical work, Stogdill found significant discrepancies in studies on the importance for successful leadership of such qualities as intelligence, eloquence, self-control, prudence, optimism, determination, etc. and at the same time, the qualities that contribute to the success of leaders often include energy, intelligence, social status, work motivation, dominance, self-confidence, social skills and responsibility.

Previously, in many manuals on management and books on management, personality was not the subject of research, since all attention was paid to planning, economics, marketing, and the organizational and technical side. And only later, after realizing the role of groups and their constituent members in the labor process, they began to actively study the main characteristics of groups, the human factor, the behavior of the individual and the personality of the leader.

Personality is the most important thing in a person, his most important social sign, if a person is a carrier of a variety of properties, then personality is his main property, in which his social essence is manifested and reflects the person's relation to a certain society, a certain historical era, culture, science etc.

The importance of managers has now grown so much that in the West they are talking about a "revolution of managers", managers of the largest firms, corporations, whose economic, scientific and technical significance in the world is comparable to that of large and medium-sized states.

The leader as a subject of management performs different roles, including the role of coordinator, organizer of members of a social group, exercises social influence in the team by various means, uses clearly regulated subordinate relations. All this strengthens the relevance of our study.

The purpose of the study: to study the professionally significant qualities of a leader, psychological characteristics and methods of forming his personality.

Object of study: the process of forming the personality of a leader as a subject of management.

Subject of study: professionally significant qualities of a leader.

personality head psychological gender

Research hypothesis: the effectiveness of the leader's activity is directly dependent on the development of professionally significant personal qualities in him.

Research objectives:

.To study the personal qualities of a leader;

2.Highlight the main roles and functions of leadership and areas of managerial interaction.

.Determine the methods of formation of the psychological qualities of the leader's personality.

Research methods: analysis of management literature, observation, testing.

Structure: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.

Chapter 1. Personal qualities and abilities of the leader as a factor in his successful activity in the management system

§ 1.1 Psychological characteristics of the leader's personality

Professionally trained leaders (managers) differentfrom each other in terms of leadership effectiveness. A survey of outstanding managers in Europe, the United States and Japan showed that they distinguish the following factorsthat ensure success in management activities:

) the desire and interest of a person to engage in the activities of a manager;

) the ability to work with people (communicate, interact, convince, influence them);

) flexibility, originality, originality of thinking;

) the optimal combination of riskiness and responsibility in character;

) the ability to foresee the future development of events, the consequences of decisions, intuition;

) high professional competence and special managerial training.

The first five of the six most important factors for successful managers closelyassociated with the psychological qualities of the individual.

The qualities that are contraindicated for a manager are: hypersensitivity, high imbalance, anxiety.

Reasonable personal goals and clear personal values ​​of a manager can be highlighted as critical to success in a business career and personal life. V. Frankl in his book "Man's Search for Meaning" identified three groups of positive meanings of values:

) values ​​of creativity;

) values ​​of experience;

) relationship values.

) The values ​​of creativity are realized through human labor. In his work, he expresses his abilities and individual characteristics, brings a certain personal meaning to his work. A person's understanding of the meaning of his work makes him creative, more productive.

) The values ​​of experience are manifested in the sensitivity of a person to various phenomena of the surrounding world - to people, nature (plants, animals). The ability to empathize - empathy - psychologists understand as emotional responsiveness, sensitivity, attention to other people, their problems, joys and sorrows; willingness to help and support. The development of empathy implies the development of humanistic values ​​of the individual, personal growth. Without this, complete self-realization of the individual is impossible. Empathy connects a person with the world of people and helps him not to feel his loneliness.

) Attitude values ​​are associated with a person's reaction to the limitation of his capabilities, when he is at the mercy of circumstances that he cannot change. The measure of the viability of a person as a person is how he relates to his fate, the hardships of life, failures, mistakes, what position he takes in relation to them. Frankl notes that due to the presence of value relations, human existence cannot be meaningless. Critical reflection on one's own mistakes without harsh criticism is a powerful psychological incentive to gain self-confidence. Everyone has the right to make a mistake (“one learns from mistakes”), but the consequences of mistakes should be analyzed as a valuable experience of the past, a lesson that life has taught. An overly critical attitude to oneself interferes with creativity, self-expression and creates a fear of failure in the future.

Each person fulfills his destiny, realizes the unique meaning of his life, focusing on different values. This helps him to think about the meaning in life, which in itself is a normal manifestation of personal growth.

The effectiveness of the work of the leader can be judged by certain criteria. The main criterion for evaluating the activities of the leader is the final result of the work of the entire team, in which the efforts of both the leader and the performers are combined. From an economic point of view, such a criterion is the profit of an enterprise (organization). However, profit is not the only criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of a manager's work. Along with it, there are others that can be divided into psychological and non-psychological, which have a close relationship.

The psychological criteria for the effectiveness of leadership include:

· psychological climate of the team;

· satisfaction membership in a team;

· motivation of team members;

· team self-assessment;

The non-psychological ones are:

· performance, product quality;

economy;

innovations;

· cost reduction;

·profitability;

· reduction in staff turnover.

From the point of view of psychology, management functions such as motivation and regulation (along with planning, organization, control) are the most significant. World-renowned authorities in the field of management note: "Business operations can ultimately be reduced to designationthree words: people, product, profit. People come first. If you do not have a reliable team, then little else can be done" (Lee Iacocca). "Respect the dignity of subordinates, be attentive to them. Look at them, and not at capital investments and not at automation, as the main source of productivity "(T. Peters, K. Rothermea). "When you already have a staff of trained, smart, energetic people, the next step is to stimulate their creative abilities" (A. Morita).

To encourage people to work well, conscientiously, vigorously for the organization, the manager must:

) reduce the level of dissatisfaction of subordinates, using motivation regulators;

) to increase the level of satisfaction by strengthening the main motivators that stimulate the energy of subordinates.

The personal characteristics of a leader are directly related to his psyche, subjective qualities, innate, acquired or developedabilities. The leading place among them is occupied by intellect, which characterizes mental abilities and personality development.

It has long been believed that, in general, the leader is smarter than his subordinates and the effectiveness of his activities directly depends on his intellectual level. However, studies conducted in the 60s by the American industrial psychologist E. Ghiselli cast doubt on such ideas. Based on the generalization of their results, he concluded that there is no direct relationship between the level of intelligence and the effectiveness of leadership. The most significant results in management are achieved by people not with the highest and not with the lowest level of intellectual development, but with average intellectual abilities.

A well-known confirmation of this conclusion was the results of research by Japanese firms T. Kono. They showed, in particular, that excellent students, having taken a job in Japanese corporations, as a rule, do not become top managers there. Kono explains this mainly by the fact that such students are not distinguished by the ability to build relationships with other people, initiate and maintain collective action in general. Skillthis kind is one of the first conditions of a business career in Japan.

Kono's idea of ​​the complex nature of the influence of mental abilities on career and leadership effectiveness was developed in detail by F. Fiedler and A. Leyster. These scientists, based on their own research, came to the conclusion that the influence of intelligence on leadership effectiveness is mediated by a number of factors that can weaken the positive correlations of these parameters. These include: motivation, experience, relationships with senior management. The influence of intelligence on efficiency depends primarily on its motivation, desire to occupy high positions and achieve high results. For example, a leader with such a mindset can consider his motivation to be very relative, justifying this, for example, by the “mortal life frailty”, the limited and “one-dimensional” production role, the relativity of the values ​​of success, career, etc., the priority of other, non-production values ​​such as personal autonomy and freedom, intellectual or artistic creativity, communication with interesting people, leisure, etc.

High intellectual development is often combined with excessive reflection and individualism, a lack of self-confidence, determination, as well as some other qualities necessary for a career and effective leadership. In addition, leaders who are not particularly high intellect, fearing for their authority, and even their position, often dislike "too smart" and try to either get rid of them or delay their career growth, not allowing them to leadership positions, so as not to make them potential competitors to yourself.

That is why, when assessing the role of intelligence in the activities of a manager, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of his mind, which are quite difficult to adequately determine using the available tests and methods, as well as various factors that mediate the influence of intelligence. On average, managers have a higher level of intellectual development than their subordinates. Among them are many bright personalities and outstanding minds.

The intellectual level of the leader is associated with a number of other important qualities. The literature highlights a wide variety of personal qualities of a leader. Their logically ordered and very reasonable list is offered by P.L. Krichevsky. Based on his classification, and on the materials of other authors, the most important personal qualities of an effective leader (in addition to the intelligence already considered) include the following:

· dominance, i.e. desire to influence other people. This trait is directly related to the desire for leadership and leadership motivation;

· self-confidence. You can rely on a leader with this quality, he can be trusted, and on the contrary, a leader who is unsure of himself, constantly doubting and vacillating does not inspire confidence and is not able to unite and mobilize people to complete tasks;

· self-control, emotional balance and stress resistance. The manager must be able to control his behavior, regardless of emotions, not to show personal preferences or dislike for individual employees, to be even and objective in relations with everyone. Of course, he, like any person, cannot but experience positive and negative emotions. Constant suppression of emotions can adversely affect health, cause various kinds of neuroses, hypertension, peptic ulcers and other diseases. Therefore, it is very important to find time for emotional relaxation, which can be provided by sports, tourism, hobbies, active family and other communication, etc.;

· creativity, or creativity. The leader must be able to think independently, notice and support the new, look for more effective ways to complete tasks, improve himself;

· purposefulness, striving to achieve the goal. Leaders are more often goal-oriented people who set themselves certain goals and stubbornly achieve their implementation. This is an important part of leadership motivation;

· entrepreneurial spirit, willingness to take reasonable risks. In market conditions, a manager must be able to notice and calculate various options for action and, when appropriate, take risks, while striving to foresee the consequences as much as possible;

· decisiveness, willingness to take responsibility. A manager who effectively performs his managerial functions cannot apply to his superiors for any reason or prepare collective decisions that remove personal responsibility. He should not miss favorable opportunities to achieve goals, but he must stop negative actions and tendencies in a timely manner;

· reliability in relations with subordinate management and customers. A manager who does not have such qualities loses the trust of others and cannot count on their support in any business;

· social worker, ability to work with people. According to a number of studies, the manager spends on verbal communication with people about three-quarters of his working time. If he does not know how to build relationships with people, then he will never achieve real success;

· the ability to maximize the capabilities of employees through their proper placement and motivation. The individual efforts of the manager are not enough for the success of the organization, which depends on the maximum contribution of each employee and the total complexity of the actions.

For the optimal use of the labor potential of employees, the manager must not only have personal charm, but also be well aware of the individual capabilities and characteristics of his employees, and partly of the senior management.

The named personal qualities of an effective leader are far from exhausting their complete list. They are significantly supplemented and concretized by some other factors of the successful activity of the leader, in particular, established on the basis of generalization of various studies and extensive literature by Finnish authors T. Santalainen, E. Voutilainen, P. Porenne and others. Only partially repeating some of the qualities already noted, they focuses not so much on general personality traits as on the abilities of leaders mediated by training and practical experience. These include:

· performance and desire to work hard to achieve the goals;

· willingness and ability to take responsibility for the assigned task and make risky decisions;

· Willingness to start change processes, manage them and use them in the interests of the organization;

· willingness to use an open way of management that welcomes cooperation;

· the art of making quick decisions;

· the ability to focus on the present and the future;

· the ability to see changes occurring both within the organization and outside it, and use them;

· readiness for close social relationships;

· readiness for general leadership;

· creative approach to their work;

· constant self-improvement and good general mental and physical shape;

· the ability to properly use your time;

· willingness to motivate themselves and staff;

· Willingness to lead well-trained, professional staff;

· readiness for political leadership;

· international outlook.

Of course, and this is not a complete list of the qualities of effective leadership - there are many more. But hardly all leaders, even quite successful ones, possess such a solid set of qualities. Some of them are not necessarily required from every leader, for example, the need for an "international outlook" depends on the characteristics of certain countries and enterprises. It should undoubtedly be possessed by, say, heads of joint ventures, international organizations, and so on.

For practical work on the formation of effective leadership, it is important to know not so much the general positive qualities of a leader as their real significance for typical situations in personnel management.

§ 1.2 Gender characteristics of the leader's personality

Of particular importance are biological and demographic qualities that are congenital or inherited. First of all, this applies to such demographic parameters as gender and age, and to a certain extent, health. The most common characteristic of leaders, according to which they are divided into two groups that are clearly unequal in size, is gender.

Traditionally, studies in the field of personnel management focused on a male leader, considered this a kind of standard, since it was men who at all times clearly dominated among leaders, both in public service and in business. In recent decades, the impact of gender differences on work and career, especially the behavior of women in organizations, have become the object of a number of special studies. Based on their results, two groups of factors can be distinguished that determine the characteristics of the organizational behavior of women:

)sociocultural factors, which include standards of behavior accepted in society, established role stereotypes in relation to men and women, traditions, primarily family ones, that influence the formation of value orientations, attitudes and expectations (expectations) of women;

2)actually sexual, biological and psychological factors.

The role of sociocultural factors is manifested in the fact that the vast majority of women from childhood are guided by a relatively modest social status, the values ​​of family and personal life, raising children and helping their husband. Society and others also expect women to fulfill these social roles in the first place. The presence of this kind of orientation of women and the stereotypical perception of the female role by men is confirmed by a number of studies.

So, according to the observations of the behavior of jurors, conducted by American psychologists F. Strodtbeck and R. Marr, men are much more active than women in the discussion preceding the adoption of a court decision. Research by E. Eriz also showed that in mixed laboratory groups, when solving common problems, men were the initiators of 66% of all communicative acts. In general, many studies confirm that women have a weaker desire to become a woman and persistence in achieving this goal. This attitude of women can be explained, first of all, by the clearly prevailing expectations in society that a man will perform the functions of a leader and a weak readiness to perceive a woman in this role.

This conclusion is confirmed, in particular, by laboratory experiments conducted by the American psychologist R. Rais. He explored the attitudes of male military academy cadets towards explaining the reasons for the success of female leaders. For this purpose, all male participants in the experiment were divided into groups of three people. One group was led by men, the other by women. After summing up the results of the laboratory task by various groups, the men were inclined to attribute the success of the groups led by the “weaker sex” to luck, a game of chance. At the same time, the success of the groups that were previously led by men was attributed mainly to the personal qualities of their leaders.

Accounting for this kind of stereotypes is important for women leaders, who, in order to effectively lead, have to actually prove the "normality" of their being in the role of "boss". For men, such evidence is usually not required.

The second group of factors that determine the behavior of a female leader is manifested in a greater dependence of her mood and mental state on the whole on physiological cycles, in the burden of natural concerns about the family, the birth and upbringing of children, in less emotional balance and impartiality, in a stronger than in men, the coloring of business relations in personal tones and the perception of employees through the prism of likes and dislikes.

The identification of these empirically supported features of women in leadership effectiveness is not equally interpreted in the scientific literature. Some authors tend to consider them more likely as advantages than disadvantages, “Many assumptions that female managers differ significantly from male managers,” says F. Denmark, “are not at all supported by the data. As a rule, researchers agree on the existence of only one difference, namely, women's greater interest in relationships between people, but this should be considered as a plus in terms of the effectiveness of leadership.Allegations of differences between the sexes in abilities, attitudes, personality traits are based more on leftist stereotypes than on the results of empirical study - leaders ".

To a certain extent, the American researchers A. Eagley and B. Johnson agree with F. Denmark's positive interpretation of psychological characteristics. Based on the analysis of the relevant literature, they concluded that female leaders are more "soft", "humane", superior in understanding the personal problems of employees, and adherence to the democratic style of leadership.

However, contrary to the positive assessments of the psychological characteristics of female leaders, most researchers adhere to the opposite point of view and consider their increased emotionality and personal orientation in business relationships as a negative factor in effective leadership, which, however, can be completely neutralized with the help of persistent self-improvement, training and experience. . To be recognized by the group and the effectiveness of women's leadership, it is necessary to develop: high resistance to frustrations and emotional outbursts, to be more "thick-skinned"

Of course, the noted features of women leaders should not be considered as the inevitable shortcomings of all representatives of the weaker sex who have organizational power. History knows many examples when women leaders were distinguished by a high degree of rationalism, composure, determination and will. Moreover, facts of this kind abound not only in industrial activity, but also in politics, which gives examples of effective female leadership in the highest government posts, it is enough to recall the example of the "Iron Lady" - former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher).

And yet, in the positions of managers and heads of public services, women are rather poorly represented. Undoubtedly, in attracting women to leadership positions in business, politics and other areas of activity, even in the most advanced countries in terms of women's emancipation, there are considerable reserves. However, the equalization of the representation of women in leadership positions would be detrimental to production, to women themselves and to humanity as a whole, since in the historically formed - according to gender differences - social division of labor, women are clearly indispensable in performing such primary functions for the existence of the entire human species as its reproduction (despite on well-known experiments on growing children "in test tubes" using genetic engineering), emotional education of children, creation of a healthy full-fledged family. These functions are no less important for society and citizens than women's management.

What has been said about the influence of women's natural characteristics on the social division of managerial and executive labor, of course, should not be taken as an argument in favor of any kind of discrimination against women, making it difficult for them to access leadership positions. Women, like men, may well be talented, effective leaders, find their calling and satisfaction in this kind of activity.

The second most important demographic trait that affects leadership effectiveness is age.

The impact of this factor on managerial activity, as in the case of gender, can only be discussed in a general, average way, given the rather frequent exceptions to the general rules, which are explained by the individual characteristics of people, as well as the specifics of various organizations. Therefore, modern science is far from always able to unambiguously answer the question of the optimal age for starting, flourishing and ending a manager's business career.

In management practice, it is generally accepted that the level of the position held generally correlates with age: higher leadership positions require a more mature, of course, to certain limits, age. Many management structures, primarily army and bureaucratic structures, clearly regulate the occupation of high positions in the service hierarchy by experienced people with extensive organizational experience. For example, taking a general's position in the army in peacetime is practically impossible not only at the age of twenty, but, as a rule, even at the age of thirty-five.

In business, the age factor is not so strictly regulated. However, even here there is a regularity in the occupation of high posts by people of a very mature age. So, according to the materials collected and summarized by T. Kono, the average age of presidents of large companies in the manufacturing industry in Japan is 63.5 years, in the USA - 59 years. Vice presidents of industrial companies are somewhat younger. In the 70s and 80s, their average age in Japan was about 55.7 years, in the USA - almost the same. Moreover, in Japanese companies, 66% of all new appointments to senior management positions occur at the age of 50-56 years. Managers hold the post of president of the company for an average of 8 years, while their total duration of work in the corporation is about 30 years.

In Japan, there are relatively many high-performing executives who are over 70 years of age, although here, too, some corporations, such as the world-famous electronics company Sony Corporation, limit the age limit for senior management positions to 65 years. Similar restrictions are widespread in Europe and America.

Both young and old age have their own advantages and disadvantages that affect the effectiveness of leadership. The main virtues of young leaders are usually energy, high susceptibility to innovation and enterprise, good health and high efficiency. At the same time, they are inferior to their older colleagues in experience, specific human capital - knowledge, especially knowledge of the specifics of the organization, in composure, wisdom, and the ability to distinguish the main from the secondary. As the well-known American billionaire, President of the American company Occidental Petroleum, A. Hammer, wrote, “if you are lucky and have lived to be eighty-eight years old without losing the ability to think and feel, then you have one advantage - you know for sure that what is important in your life and what is secondary. II know exactly what I want to achieve in the time remaining to me, and if my goals are more difficult to achieve than the goals of many other people, this means that I will have to work harder. "This tireless entrepreneur himself continued to successfully lead the company at the age of eighty, although he earned at 21, combining his studies at the university with the management of a small pharmaceutical company.

There are quite a lot of similar examples that testify to the possibility of effective leadership, both in the elderly and at a young age. When solving practical personnel problems, as well as issues of age regulation of leadership positions in general, it is necessary to take into account, in addition to individual qualities, the features of the field of activity. In those areas (mainly in the civil service) where there are no mechanisms or competitive selection of personnel, and it is difficult to determine clear criteria for their activities, accounting for work experience, as well as regulation of the age limit, is especially necessary. In the same place (primarily in the business sector), where the effectiveness of management is regularly tested by competition, and the results of activities are quite tangible and can be assessed quite accurately, establishing direct (maximum age for holding a position) and indirect (presence of a certain track record) is inappropriate. So, Lee Iacocca says: “If a person at the age of 65 can still work and do his job well, why should he retire? The retired manager has worked in the company for a long time, knows everything about it. If a person is physically healthy and eager to do his job, why not use his experience and knowledge?

Health is an important factor in effective leadership. At the same time, he means not only physical, but also spiritual and moral health, which characterizes the state of the human spirit: stable fundamental moral values, mental balance, stress resistance, etc.

Health directly affects not only the age parameters of a person’s ability to work, prolongs the active period of life, but is also a necessary condition for everyday effective activity. leader. The working day of a manager and any other leader usually far exceeds the officially established 7-8 hours. Often, it lasts 14 or more hours a day and is also associated with high nervous and emotional stress. Therefore, a healthy lifestyle, physical education, tourism, sports, regular psychological relief are the most important components of effective leadership, which should not be neglected. The predominantly objective factors of effective leadership include the socio-economic position of a person, his status in society, and the education received. Studies unambiguously confirm the direct dependence of the occupation of leadership positions on the social origin and status of a person. As F.E. Fiedler, "The best way to become president of a company is to be born into a family that owns a company." Of course, this does not mean at all that only children of high-ranking parents occupy leadership positions. History knows many reverse examples, even among high positions in business and politics. However, there is still a positive correlation between the socio-economic status and entry into the leadership cadres.

This is largely due to such an indicator of social status as education. People from rich families are more likely to get a good education and find a promising job than children of wealthy parents. In general, education is one of the leading factors in occupying leadership positions and effective leadership. This is confirmed by numerous studies.

Education occupies, as it were, an intermediate position between the objective and subjective, personal characteristics of leadership, since its receipt depends both on the socio-economic status, wealth of a person, and on his individual abilities, primarily on the level of intelligence.

Chapter 2

§ 2.1 Roles and functions of the manager

Leadership is a mental and physical activity, the purpose of which is the fulfillment by subordinates of the actions prescribed by them and the solution of certain tasks.

A leader is a position that allows a person to have certain powers, to use the power given to him. To effectively manage the organization, the leader must have leadership influence, certain personal qualities. However, the leader does not become a leader only because of these qualities.

The modern leader (manager) is at the same time:

1)manager, endowed with power;

2)a leader who is able to lead his subordinates (using his authority, positive emotions, high professionalism);

)a diplomat who establishes contacts with partners and authorities, successfully overcomes internal and external conflicts;

)an educator with high moral qualities, able to create a team and guide its development in the right direction;

)an innovator who understands the role of science in the modern world of business, who is able to evaluate and immediately introduce "know-how", inventions, rational proposals into production;

)just a person with deep knowledge, extraordinary abilities, a high level of culture, honesty, decisiveness of character, strong will, but at the same time, prudence, the ability to be a model in all respects.

The activity of the head is characterized by some psychological features.

The first of these is that the leader, in accordance with his functions, must perform work that is diverse in the content of professional activity, while the possibilities of mastering various types of activity by one person are limited and complicated by contradictions.

The second feature of the manager's activity, from the point of view of psychology, is an increased responsibility for the state of resources (equipment, buildings, structures; providing production with raw materials; work with personnel, etc.), as well as for the results of activities (worn-out equipment, problems with sales, non-payment of suppliers and other similar problems increase the psychological burden on managers).

The third feature is that the work of a leader is always creative, and the result of it are managerial decisions that affect the results. But the adoption of effective decisions is often complicated by a lack of funds, a lack of information on the main problems, and a lack of qualified executors.

The fourth feature of the leader's activity, from a psychological point of view, is the performance of communicative functions, since managerial activity is associated with communication, constant work with people. Knowledge in the field of communication psychology is necessary for the leader to effectively perform these functions.

The fifth feature of the leader's activity is his high general neuropsychic tension.

The psychological features of the leader's activity make it possible to present a certain psychological structure corresponding to him, including a set of characteristics: organizational skills; communicative qualities; moral and ethical characteristics of attitude towards other people; motivational factors; volitional sphere; "practical" intelligence; personal character; emotional sphere; psychodynamic characteristics; age and gender features.

The basis of the psychological structure of the leader's personality is his organizational skills. Specialists of the school of Professor L.I. Umansky, dealing with the problems of managerial psychology, there are three substructures of organizational abilities:

.Organizational insight or "flair" of the manager, including: a) psychological selectivity (the ability to put oneself in the place of another, attention to the intricacies of relationships); b) the practical orientation of the intellect (the use of the psychological state of the team in solving practical problems); c) psychological tact (i.e. the ability to maintain a sense of proportion in their psychological selectivity and pragmatic orientation);

2.Emotional-volitional effectiveness or hypnotism of "impressiveness", the ability to influence others with will and emotions. This ability is made up of such factors as: a) energy, the ability to charge subordinates with their enthusiasm; b) exactingness, the ability to get one's own from subordinates, using psychologically competent techniques that are adequate to the requirements for subordinates; c) criticality, the ability to detect and evaluate deviations from the intended goal in the activities of performers.

.Propensity for organizational activity or readiness for organizational activity, ranging from motivation to professional readiness, as well as well-being in the process of organizational activity, i.e. tone, satisfaction and performance.

The effectiveness of leadership is largely determined by the correspondence of the individual traits of the leader to the roles and functions that he is called upon to perform in the organization. In the most general, integrated form, the requirements for the leader are reflected in the social roles assigned to him by the organization. The literature distinguishes a different number of such roles. For example, the American scientist V. Ansoff indicates four main roles of the leader:

)the role of a leader. In this case, we mean an informal leader with high authority and the ability to influence other people. The effectiveness of the organization largely depends on the use of leadership qualities. As G. Kunz and S. O "Donnell" note, "if subordinates are guided only by the rules and needs established by management, they can work at about 60 or 65% of their capabilities, just perform their duties satisfactorily enough to keep their jobs. In order to achieve the full use of the abilities of subordinates, the leader must evoke an appropriate response from them by exercising leadership. "The return of personnel depends on leadership by 30-35%;

2)administrator role. This role implies the ability of the manager to control the state of affairs, make decisions and achieve their implementation, organize and coordinate the actions of subordinates, ensure order, compliance with legal and administrative norms and orders;

)the role of the scheduler. The main tasks of this role are to optimize the future activities of the organization by analyzing trends in changes, both in the organization itself and in its environment; identification of management alternatives and selection of the best of them; concentration of resources on the main activities of the organization. The planner must have an analytical mind, be methodical in his work and be oriented towards the future;

)the role of an entrepreneur. Acting in this role, the leader must be an experimenter, find new activities, non-standard solutions that are most appropriate for the situation, must be prepared for a certain entrepreneurial risk, while minimizing it in every possible way.

A more detailed and, probably, closer to Russian conditions, classification of the roles of a leader is given by the author of the textbook "Personnel Management. Functions and Methods". They call these roles this way, while revealing their content:

)"thinker" - a general understanding of the state of affairs in the unit, the search for optimal ways to solve problems;

2)staff worker - processing of management information and preparation of documentation;

3)"organizer" - coordination of work of employees;

4)"personnel officer" - selection, placement, evaluation of personnel;

)"educator" - training and motivation of personnel;

)"supplier" - providing the group with everything necessary for labor activity;

)"social activist" - participation as a leader at meetings and meetings; work with public organizations;

)"innovator" - the introduction of advanced labor methods and scientific and technical achievements in production;

)"controller" - control over compliance with organizational standards and product quality;

)"diplomat" - establishing links with other institutions and their representatives.

Consider the functions of a leader.

The social roles of the leader are detailed and manifested in his functions. In the literature, there are quite a variety of classifications of managerial functions. The following managerial functions can be distinguished:

· assessment of the situation, development, justification (i.e. finding out how realistic, understandable and controllable the goals are) and setting goals;

· definition and preparation of measures to achieve the goals;

· coordinating the activities of employees in accordance with common goals;

· control over the compliance of the results of its activities with the tasks set;

· organization of employees' activities, i.e. use of existing and creation of new organizational structures or management of personnel and its activities;

· informing employees;

· interactive, contact interaction (communication) business communication for the purpose of obtaining information, consulting, providing assistance, etc.;

· formation of incentive systems for employees and their motivation;

· delegation of tasks, competence and responsibility;

· conflict prevention and resolution;

· dissemination of organization-specific values ​​and norms;

· caring for subordinates and ensuring their loyalty;

· formation of a cohesive team and maintaining its capacity;

· reducing the feeling of insecurity in the actions of staff and ensuring organizational stability.

As can be seen from the above list of managerial functions, they differ significantly in their complexity and scope of activities, and partially overlap. Some authors combine these and some other functions into two main functions" 1) achieving a group goal;

) unity of the group and concern for its preservation. Let's take a closer look at these functions.

Achieving a group goal. This includes all functions related to the definition of group goals and objectives, as well as the mobilization of employees for their implementation:

· setting goals and defining the roles of individual team members;

· identification of problems arising in the implementation of tasks;

· group coordination;

· planning and organizational preparation of group meetings, including determining their composition;

· the formation of "normal" group communications (for example, conversations with specialists, obtaining versatile information about the state of affairs of each member of the group, etc.);

· identification and clarification of unclear issues;

· control over compliance with temporary plans and generalization of intermediate results;

· verification of the correct perception and interpretation of information received by group members;

· methodological assistance to employees and assistance in developing their initiative and creativity in solving problems;

· providing employees with future work, taking into account their capabilities and desires;

· development of mutual assistance when performing difficult tasks and in unforeseen situations;

· regular summing up of individual labor results;

· taking care of professional development and mastery of related professions;

· development of external relations of the group and preparation of relevant information;

· acquisition of financial and all other resources necessary for the work.

2. Cohesion of the group and concern for its preservation. The content of this general function includes solving problems related to ensuring the optimality and constancy of the composition of team members, with the establishment of intra-group relations, including relations between group members and the leader. These tasks include:

· detection and elimination of emotional tension in group relations;

· notification of group norms, rules of the game (for example, honesty and sincerity in relationships) and a timely reminder of them;

· protection and encouragement of "quiet" team members, inhibition of the desire of overly active employees to dominate and oppress the more modest;

· conflict resolution;

· protection of individual employees from those who infringe on their personal dignity;

· development of healthy collectivism, mutual trust and solidarity, benevolence and the desire to find compromises;

· all support for group meetings;

· attentive and tolerant attitude towards employees when solving issues that arise when working together in a team (correct understanding of common goals, opportunities, problems, etc.);

· employee motivation;

· initiating constructive criticism.

The manager's functions act as a measure of assessing his individual qualities, which are designed to contribute to the successful implementation of all social roles and activities. Depending on the similarity or proximity, various characteristics and qualities of a leader that affect the effectiveness of his activities can be combined into two general groups: biological and socio-economic characteristics and personal qualities, which we talked about earlier.

§ 2.2 Methods for the formation of the psychological components of the leader's personality

Modern training methods cover all the characteristics of the intellect. Unfortunately, there is no way to review them even briefly. Therefore, we will only point out that in our time, the systems of exercises and tasks that make up what is called intellectual gymnastics are so effective that training according to a pre-compiled program may not be beneficial only to that person who does not have a sufficient desire to improve and, accordingly, diligence in bringing the case to a successful conclusion.

Principles and methods of enhancing memory.

It is generally accepted that memory is the basis of personality. The loss of memory is the loss by a person of his "I", his individuality. Memory is a condition for the implementation of any processes in the human psyche. The inability to keep any information in mind means the impossibility of thinking about this information, the impossibility of orientation in the world around a person. As an internal combustion engine cannot work without fuel, and an electric motor without electricity, so thinking cannot be carried out without information "fuel", without what the human brain keeps in its pantries. In addition, memory is such a fundamental characteristic of a person that its improvement affects almost all other intellectual abilities of people.

Before you start training your memory, you should firmly grasp that:

)to improve memorization, you need to know the features of your memory, its type, capacity, accuracy, strength of material fixation, readiness for its reproduction. This is the first principle of memory training - the principle of individuality;

2)you can not improve memory at all; it is necessary to establish firmly: for what purposes it is necessary to improve memory. This is fixed by the principle of the purpose of training;

3)any memory characteristics are improved if the object of memory is the subject of your personal interest, if it affects any important conditions of your life. This is the third principle - the principle of interest (some scholars call it the principle of selfishness);

)memorization and reproduction are directly dependent on the frequency of use of the material that needs to be mastered. This is the fourth principle - the principle of activity;

5)memorization capabilities depend on the number of elements of the material intended for memorization: it was found that their number should not exceed seven. The grouping of material with this fact in mind is prescribed by the principle of the seven.

Compliance with these principles can significantly improve the ability to memorize. In fact, if you know the peculiarity of your memory, have or arouse in yourself a great interest in the subject of memorization, repeatedly and in different ways use what you need to remember, group the material so that the number of blocks does not exceed the "magic" number seven, - you have already secured a strong fixation or a greater possibility of a strong fixation and fast playback of the material.

If we also know some methods of memorization, the niche of the ability to remember increases many times over.

The most important technique for improving memorization is the unloading of memory through the use of so-called external memory. These are a computer, simple notebooks, electronic notebooks, diaries and weeklies, cards, tables, diagrams, magnetic tapes, etc. etc. It is rightly said that an unwritten thought is a lost treasure. In order to better remember what you need to constantly carry in your head, you need to save it from the need to fix everything that can be taken out into external memory. At the same time, the effectiveness of the latter is the higher, the more it is organized, systematic and the better it performs the function of a leading (pre-notifying) reminder. The means of external memory then bring success when they are organized in a system that is convenient for a particular person.

The second technique is to organize the workplace and the environment of one's habitat according to the rule - each thing has its own place. This seemingly very simple technique is fraught with great opportunities for freeing physical memory from unnecessary effort. Adherents of this approach - the British - give a lot of examples of the high efficiency of memory through the organization of the workplace.

The third technique, called the contrast method, consists either in organizing (creating) a contrasting background for memorizing material, or in finding paradoxical formulations to express what needs to be remembered, or in considering (parsing, analyzing) material that is directly opposite in meaning to that which meant to be remembered. How difficult it is sometimes to remember a "smooth" material that does not contain any surprises or at least roughness. When they say "A dog bit a man" - this may be remembered, but most likely it will be quickly forgotten. Another thing is when someone brings such a message: "A man has bitten a dog." If at the same time it is indicated who this person is (say, a resident from the 25th apartment), and where exactly he bit the dog (say, on the left hind leg), this will be remembered by most people forever. The statement that in our age an integrated approach to the objects of science is needed is many times less memorizable than the statement "If a person knows chemistry well and only chemistry, then he does not know chemistry either." A short and figurative "Paradox is a quadrangular triangle" is much stronger than a long and "smooth" explanation of the essence of this logical phenomenon. Another example. Bruno Furst, a prominent specialist in the problem of memory, cites a rather curious, easy-to-remember case of a contrasting presentation of information. In his book "Learning to Remember" the following picture is reproduced: at a modern office desk lined with telephones, the leader of an American Indian tribe in brightly colored national clothes sits. It is impossible not to pay attention to this picture and not to remember what is depicted on it.

Has great mnemonic power transcoding method. Its meaning is to present (record, depict) the material, as psychologists say, in another language, in the one that has some advantages over the original one or, at least, is close to a person. A bright, long-known example of recoding can be at least the following. When the order of the colors in the spectrum is memorized with the help of the easily reproducible phrase "every - hunter - wants - to know - where - sits - a pheasant" (red - orange - yellow - green - blue - blue - violet), then this is nothing more than a method transcoding in action. A special case of the recoding method is a technique called assimilation (or analogy). It is very simple and yet quite effective. If you can find some similarity to the subject of memorization: "It looks like so-and-so" - this is already some basis for strong fixation.

When we explain what mental representations are, we liken them to symptoms in medicine, indicators in technology, clues in legal practice. As a rule, this is quite enough for the idea of ​​the representative to remain in memory.

In the same row there is also a technique that can be called the method of figurative definitions. If we end the explanation of the essence of the nature of God with the words JI. Feuerbach that God is a projection of man into heaven "- there is no doubt that this statement will stick in the memory in the same way as, say, the "definition" of the model as a substitute for the object of study. The phrase of B. C. Chernomyrdin is remembered from once: " We wanted the best, but it turned out, as always. "Experts dubbed this method of memorization the method of absurdities.

A very powerful memorization technique is to predict the consequences of the fact that we do not remember what we need to remember. The question is posed simply: what happens if we do not remember some material? The more consequences that affect your interests you deduce from this fact, the more likely it is that the material intended to be remembered will be retained in memory. For example, you need to remind the time of a business date with a work colleague. From the fact that you forget and do not come to that date, many conclusions can be drawn: firstly, a discussion of an interesting issue for you will break; secondly, your comrade who must come to the meeting will be put in a difficult position, since the fate of his proposal (rationalization, for example) depends on your decision; thirdly, your prestige as a neat and punctual person will be undermined. In addition to these consequences, consequences can be deduced from consequences, that is, the consequences of the fact that you forget to come to a meeting. When such mental work leads you to a clear idea of ​​the importance of the consequences of the weakness of your memory for you or for your close environment, there is no doubt that the material necessary for memorization will be recorded. inthe brain is quite reliable. Of course, it is possible to predict consequences not only from the fact that we do not remember the material. Forecasting consequences from what we remember, forecasting the benefits (conveniences, advantages.) that we received, can also contribute to remembering, if these consequences are significant enough.

From a practical point of view, the memorization method called minimization is interesting. In one case, this is the reduction of the material to the easily visible with the help of "editor's correction" or by its creative alteration. In another, a literal technique can be used - recording some textual material by the first letters of that statement (sentence, definition, wording) that needs to be remembered. (The name of the now well-known quantum light generator "laser" is a construction from the first letters of the words that make up the phrase explaining what this word means). In the third case - the regrouping of the material to strengthen the links between its constituent elements and the reduction of insignificant details. There are many methods of minimization. But the use of all must obey the principle of the seven - the number of elements (blocks) that must be remembered should not exceed seven.

Intellectual training does not consist in a theoretical study of the essence of the techniques outlined, but in practical training that provides such a level of memory development when the use of these techniques becomes automatic or almost automatic.

We have by no means exhausted everything that could be said about ways to enhance memory. But our task is different - to give an example of exercises of general intellectual gymnastics.

Fast reading.

The choice of reading as an object of consideration is not connected with the fashion for "dynamic reading", but is based on an understanding of the need to provide people with at least some psychological means for "fighting" against the excess of information that is so characteristic of our time.

So much knowledge has accumulated, the rate of its growth is so great that practically no specialist is able to master the necessary minimum of information if he does not master the method of accelerated reading. The manager suffers from an excess of both strategic and current information, perhaps more than anyone else. Various measures are being taken to make it easier for managers and specialists to work with information. Here and the creation of information services, and the optimization of the procedure for presenting documents, and the reduction in the size of publications (books, articles, brochures), and the compilation of literature reviews, and abstracting, etc. etc. But all this does not negate the need to read.

Practice put forward, and theory substantiated the need to accelerate the perception of information by a person from any source. Systems of dynamic (high-speed) reading of literature emerged. These systems are based on a generalization of the experience of some outstanding personalities who had phenomenal abilities to quickly perceive and reliably assimilate the necessary information.

The basis of dynamic reading methods is overcoming the so-called phonic barrier (external or internal pronunciation of the text being read). The essence of speed reading is a block perception of texts in the absence of regression (return back).

The real effect of learning dynamic reading is to speed up reading by 4-6 times. At the same time, the skill of fast reading is fixed in 80-90% of students.

To date, more than 3 million people employed in various fields of mental labor have already completed speed reading courses in the world (mostly managers of various ranks and scientists).

The speed reading technique is practically reduced to instructions to act as follows:

)use only the visual channel of information perception;

2)to see the word not as a certain alphabet, but as a separate sign according to its general outlines (psychologically, this is reminiscent of recognizing a person's face at a glance without enumeration of individual features);

)perceive at once not even words, but several layers or phrases;

)move your eyes not from left to right, but from top to bottom in the middle of the page (along a conditional line dividing the page in half); to capture as much text as possible on the sides of the conditional line, use the so-called "peripheral vision";

5)not allow any backtracking while reading.

Auxiliary means of teaching fast reading are special devices built to teach people to recognize texts with a short exposure time of the material. There are two types of such devices. One - with a discrete presentation of information - is a panel with a window, the shutter of which is opened using a simple device for a strictly defined time. Reducing the exposure time (open curtain time) "forces" and accustoms a person to grasp the meaning of the information presented in an accelerated mode. With the consolidation of this skill, the ability to grasp and comprehend any material is acquired in a period 2, 3, 4 times shorter than at the beginning of training.

A device with continuous presentation of information is the simplest pulling mechanism that moves a tape with natural text in accordance with a given speed. At the initial moment, the speed of the text movement should not be very high (it should allow the student to read at a speed corresponding to his natural reading pace - this is the habituation stage). Very soon you can change the speed, gradually bringing it to the maximum possible. Getting used to the successively accelerating process of moving a tape with a text and acquiring a solid skill to perceive and understand material at speeds 6-8 times higher than the original ones will mean that you can move on to reading ordinary texts (without devices).

In the absence of devices that forcibly control the speed of perception of the material, teaching speed reading is also possible. But in such cases, the function of the instruments must be taken over by the human psyche, which complicates training and lengthens its duration.

Empirical Testsrevealed the greater effectiveness of dynamic reading methods. In the case of fast reading, on average, more than 80% of the material is remembered, while with "normal" reading, about 20%. This effect is obtained due to the fact that in the process of fast reading there is practically no distraction of attention to any disturbances. In an experiment with a group of already trained people who were given texts of different difficulty and content for quick reading, a variety of interferences were created around them (loud noises, screams, music of various contents, clapping and even shots from a gas pistol). After finishing reading, they were all asked the same thing: "Did anything interfere with your reading?" The response of all 28 subjects was negative. Another question was also asked: "Did you notice anything unusual for the reading room of the library where the experiment took place?" (It is known that loud noises are not allowed in reading rooms.) Only one of the 28 subjects remembered that one of the doors of the hall was open and the other was closed. One hundred percent concentration on information. Not the weakest training in the ability to fully focus on the material!

In the process of numerous dynamic reading trainings, some shortcomings of the accelerated reading system itself were revealed, namely:

)fast reading is a slightly critical process;

2)it does not cause very many associations;

3)if it is taught without caring about the need to develop the creative principle, a person is brought up with the characteristic signs of dogmatic thinking;

4)accelerated non-critical accumulation of information increases the dependence of the creative capabilities of the intellect of a specialist on his own erudition, sometimes so much that for some workers this leads to the loss of the ability to creatively solve problems due to the inhibition of creative thinking by an excessive amount of information.

discrete reading.

In order to neutralize the harmful effects of high-speed whatniya was developed, as we called it, the technique of slow (creative) reading. The main goal of the technique is to develop the ability for creative perception of the material being read and the creative generation of new ideas based on and in the process of reading.

The methodology consists of three parts, fixing different levels of requirements for the trainee.

1. Recognition. The main thing here is the meaningful determination of the place of the perceived material in the system of previously accumulated knowledge, the establishment of links between this material and information from other documents being studied at the same time. At the recognition stage, it is recommended to try to find the internal connections of various elements of the perceived material, highlight the main thing in it, establish the subordination of various elements of the text, find places (concepts, definitions, statements) that are related to the subject of one’s own activity, turn the material (or part of it) into element of their own knowledge system. A good help in this work is the use of the so-called "marginalia" (icons for marking in the margins of texts), with the help of which it is possible to fix, say, the significance of the material for you or for your colleagues or originality, elegance, courage of thought, high accuracy, incomprehensibility, the need to discuss with someone, the opportunity to use, etc. etc. A "variegated" abstract is also useful, that is, writing material in ink of different colors, different fonts, using different shifts of the material horizontally, vertically, different intervals between letters, words, lines, etc. for the semantic highlighting of texts. (By the way, a colorful summary is a good way to enhance our ability to remember).

2. Minimization, as noted above, is the reduction of material without distorting the meaning of the "method of editorial editing" or the method of transcoding (arranging the material with your own words). The seeming simplicity of minimization should not lead to a simplistic view of the work to be done to reduce the material. The whole point is that as a result of minimization there is no distortion of meaning. And for this you need to have a clear understanding of the meaning of its individual elements. The results of this stage are well controlled by comparing the conclusions that people get from reading the original and already processed material. The similarity of these conclusions, with a sufficiently large difference in the volume of texts, is an indicator of the high level of the work carried out.

3. Generation - the process of putting forward new ideas on the basis of "subtracted" ones by combining them, extrapolating, interpolating, finding backbone relationships, etc. Particularly responsible is this stage - generation. There are many recommendations, the implementation of which makes it possible to "produce" ideas based on subtracted. Here is the redevelopment of the material (the establishment of other connections in the text compared to the author's), and the prediction of the consequences arising from the ideas of the text, and the restructuring of one's own system of ideas, taking into account the new material, and the explanation of the perceived material from other (not contained in the text) principles, and developing an opposite position, and "compromising" the ideas and/or arguments contained in the text, etc. etc. With all the variety of actions, the main thing should not be missed - as a result of these actions, new ideas, new approaches, new arguments, new schemes, new projects, and the like new should appear.

Some historical example of creative reading is the problem-solving technique used by the famous French mathematician and philosopher Descartes, who liked to think for himself more than to study the conclusions of others. Having familiarized himself with the main idea of ​​the new book, he closed it on the very first pages and liked to get to the author's conclusions by independent reflection, which ended with a comparison of the results obtained with the results from the book.

If speed reading training is preceded by slow (creative) reading training, the negative consequences mentioned above do not appear. Moreover, the combination of these techniques contains great reserves for developing the ability not only to quickly navigate the world of information, but also to quickly solve a variety of creative tasks. The conducted experiments show that learning to read (both speed and slow) is an essential basis for the development of creative thinking. Having taught to read creatively and quickly, we thereby refute in practice the well-known saying about the futility of trying to keep up with two birds with one stone.

The described techniques are only useful if the person who has mastered them understands that reading at different speeds is no less important than reading quickly. It is one thing to look at a text in order to find material necessary for practical needs, another thing to find your own original solution to a problem, and already a very special case is reading a psychological novel. You can quickly read both a business document and a work of art. But the loss of an irreplaceable psychological aroma, without which a full-fledged experience is impossible, in the case of a quick reading of fiction, can hardly be compensated for by anything. In this light, the issue of speed reading works designed to excite certain emotions, designed to include the reader among the "accomplices" (empathetic) events that are the subject of the author's imagination, cannot be considered resolved. Most likely, this kind of work should be read at a "normal" speed, at least until we learn not only to read faster, but also. worry faster. It is now quite clear that being able to read at different speeds is no less important than reading quickly.

How to develop thinking.

In various psychological trainings for managers, thinking trainings occupy a special place. After all, under all equal conditions, the result in the work of the leader ultimately depends on whether his thinking is able to "issue" a solution to the problem and ensure the adoption of a good managerial decision.

But the problems are different. And this means that it is necessary to have a clear enough idea of ​​the purposes for which thinking should be developed, for the solution of what type of problems it should be prepared.

The common thing in all problems is that their solution, if they are really problems, and not pseudo-problems, requires creative abilities, it is necessary to develop, first of all, the creative principles of the individual, which will certainly be refracted in specific acts of mental activity. It is also common that when solving any problems, rarely or often, but always, methods of routine work are used: stereotypes, algorithms, schemes, rules for processing information.

Consequently, during the transition to intellectual training, it is impossible to bypass the development in human thinking and the skills to work "according to templates".

The combination of the main, creative, with stereotypical, stereotyped thinking can give the effect of creative use of stereotypical thinking techniques and the rapid introduction of creative results into management practice in a standardized form acceptable to managers. It is clear what great advantages a person engaged in creative work has, to whom nature, training and upbringing "gave" such an ability. But if a person is unlucky and this extremely useful ability is not very developed, turning to a special thinking training becomes for him a condition for his "survival" in the field of management, and his growth and development as a modern leader.

A training tool that combines the stimulation of a person's creativity and prescribes the use of standard (stereotypical) procedures in thinking is the "Algorithm for solving managerial problems" (ARPM).

ARPM provides blocking of the peculiarities of thinking that interfere with the solution of modern problems, and contributes to the liberation of the creative component of the mentality of leaders.

ARUP combines the practical experience of solving problems by economic managers with the achievements of modern scientific psychology and, in particular, with research in the field of technical creativity; where the so-called "Algorithm for solving inventive problems" (ARIZ) has been used for more than 40 years.

ARUP is a list of instructions, the implementation of which by the manager makes it easier for him to find solutions to problems, speeds up this process, reducing the field for finding solutions. ARUP opposes the movement of thought in line with outdated schemes and patterns.

In a short chapter, it is not possible to give a complete picture of the algorithm for solving managerial problems. But it seems necessary to us to indicate its capabilities and describe the main structural elements.

ARPM contains three relatively independent subsystems:

1.Statement of the management problem.

2.Solution.

.Decision-making.

Recall that a problem in economic activity is understood as a contradiction between goals and means, between the intended results and the possibilities for achieving them.

There are two main types of management problems: economic (production) and organizational. The resolution of the former involves the identification and impact on the economic and production process (overcoming the contradictions between goals and the possibilities of achieving them). Solving problems of the second type is one of the prerequisites for solving economic problems. A common feature of these two types of problems is the existence of a contradiction between the given (expected) and the possible. The actual solution of the problem lies in the theoretical overcoming of this contradiction.

The problem statement includes:

1. Analysis of the situation:

a) understanding what needs to be done;

b) assessment of the possibility of achieving goals;

c) comparison of what is necessary to achieve the set goals with the intended means and what can be “obtained” in the process of practical implementation of the decision taken on this problem.

2. Problem formulation , assuming:

a) a clear description of the contradiction between means and ends;

b) a quantitative assessment of the magnitude of the discrepancy between means and goals (this result reflects the degree of tension of the problem situation).

3. Problem building , consisting of:

a) in the selection and clear description of the main (central) issue in the problem;

b) determining the entire (maximally large) range of questions, without finding answers to which it is impossible to find an answer to the central question of the problem;

c) structuring the problem, that is, finding meaningful and temporal connections and subordination of the entire complex of issues that make up the problem.

4. Qualification of the problem, that is, assigning it to a certain type according to:

a) time criterion: actual or potential problem;

b) object criterion: analytical or constructive;

c) meaning: key (strategic) or tactical;

d) source: a problem as a result of the mistakes of the employees of the organization, or a problem as a result of the development of the system, or a problem as a result of the actions of competitors;

e) solvability: solvable (on its own or with external help) and unsolvable, which is represented by two varieties: unsolvable on its own, unsolvable at this stage of development of the system in general;

f) structure: a complex (hierarchically, multilevel and multidimensional) constructed problem and a structurally simple problem;

g) periodicity: regular (constantly occurring under certain conditions) and irregular;

h) the criterion of the degree of problematicness: scientific and practical (containing a high degree of uncertainty and therefore requiring the involvement of specialist scientists with their special methods) and practical (with low or medium uncertainty and therefore resolvable by the practitioners' own efforts).

5. Search for analoguesproblems according to the above criteria. Finding an analogue of this problem in the list of previously resolved problems is an essential step in solving the problem. The absence of analogues is a signal to mobilize all the creative resources of the administrative apparatus and the labor collective to solve this problem.

ARUP "manages" the leader's thinking when posing one problem, but prescribes to work on the entire front of possible problems. The implementation of these instructions should give the manager a list of problems, among which, in addition to those requiring immediate solutions, there are a large number of those that are set preventively (advanced, in advance), that is, before these problems become a serious obstacle to the functioning and development of the managed system. The ability to deal with "future" problems before their resolution requires great effort distinguishes a promising leader who can solve even very large problems with a small outlay of funds, precisely because they are recognized "in the bud". No wonder they say: "He who does not foresee problems, he does not manage," and also: "Who does not see future problems, he pays dearly." Events control such a leader (as in the story where "the tail controls the dog"), forcing him to act in such conditions in which the choice of the most profitable option for activity is either completely excluded or extremely difficult.

The solution of a managerial problem begins already in the process of posing and qualifying it, because already during this period the person involved in the problem voluntarily or involuntarily thinks about how it can be solved, whom to involve in working on it, etc.

The solution of a managerial problem is a complex and difficult process if it is not organized according to the rules arising from the modern theory of the psychology of human thinking.

Just for general acquaintance with ARPM, we point out that the solution of a practical problem, in particular, involves:

.Presenting to managers and specialists a list of methods and methods for solving management problems in a convenient matrix form. All known methods are registered in this list, and in it, therefore, one can find an acceptable methodological tool based on the analogy of this problem with those previously solved by someone. The gain in time is so great that those who have used ARUP at least once become its supporters forever.

2.The use of the anthropo-maximological mechanism for finding the most appropriate solution methods. It is based on what can be conditionally called the psychophysiological theory of optimization. Anthropomaximology (the science of the ultimate human capabilities) has discovered an effect, the meaning of which lies in the fact that at the moment of presenting the highest requirements to a person and at the peak of fitness, he achieves the desired results, acting in an optimal mode. This effect is directly related to managerial work, and people can learn in this way the optimal system of actions in a short time.

Decision making has been described many times in the literature intended for executives. We only note here that the ARPM has a strict requirement to precede the decision-making with an analysis of several options for action. Otherwise, it is not possible to find the best way of practical work to achieve the goals of the organization, and the decision-making process itself can hardly be classified as justified from the standpoint of modern science.

A person who has become familiar with ARPM according to this scheme can, naturally, ask about the advantages of ARPM over the "spontaneous" solution of managerial problems.

In its entirety, ARPM is a reminder of actions aimed at overcoming almost all those intellectual weaknesses that prevent the leader from quickly solving problems and making timely decisions. Moreover, ARTC can be widely used in the process of training management workers, increasing their "sensitivity" to possible mistakes in solving real problems, developing their immunity to the so-called intellectual and psychological "diseases" (inertia, conformity, dogmatism.) and developing the ability to to disciplined, consistent and at the same time creative thinking. It is no coincidence that ARUP is recognized as the core of special intellectual gymnastics for managers.

The level of organized thinking of a leader can be measured by modern methods of psychodiagnostics. The coefficient of organization of thinking (KOM) is a reflection of the correspondence of the mental abilities of an employee to the list of requirements for his thinking, which are dictated by the peculiarities of the management problems being solved in specific conditions.

The number of methods for increasing the efficiency of mental work of managers and specialists, which are used in intellectual gymnastics as its tools, has now "exceeded" one hundred. Most of them can be used as intellectual gymnastics tools. We will analyze only one group of methods, namely the group of methods for searching for ideas for solving managerial problems and making decisions. This choice is due to the fact that executives spend 30 to 40% of their working time looking for ideas for solutions. This group traditionally includes: the method of synectics, based on the use of four types of analogies (direct, subjective, symbolic, fantastic) to stimulate and appropriately orient the thinking of workers; the method of morphological analysis, which is based on a matrix representation of partial solutions, allowing you to quickly and significantly expand the scope of the search for solutions to the problem; deadlock elimination method, which is designed to find new directions for analysis, if the obvious area of ​​study of possible solutions to the problem did not give an acceptable solution; functional cost analysis, the essence of which is indicated by its very name, the method of brainstorming.

Brainstorming, proposed by the American psychologist A. Osborne more than 40 years ago, attracts not only the simplicity of the procedure and high efficiency, but above all - versatility. It can be used in almost all areas of activity where it is necessary to solve a certain type of problem, namely those that are located in the "hierarchy" of problems below the broadest (that is, below the tasks of a philosophical plan) and above the most specific (that is, above the tasks for calculating or for drawing work). These can be tasks for generating ideas at the stage of posing a problem, formulating proposals or justifying a solution, finding a way out of their difficult or emergency situation, searching for the application of any scientific and technological achievements and options for management decisions, etc. These can be problems of both theoretical and practical nature, both technology and engineering problems, and management problems.

The rules for brainstorming are as follows:

)questions relating to the problem should be asked in such a way that short, without justification, answers can be given;

2)it is absolutely forbidden to criticize the participants in the attack and their proposals, as well as ironic remarks and remarks;

)insights and fantasies are given preference over systematic thinking;

)combinations and new applications of proposals already made are encouraged;

5)all statements are recorded;

6)the expressed ideas are objectified (that is, they are deprived of personal belonging);

7)criticism, evaluation and selection of proposals are carried out at a specially allotted time, by a specially selected group of people who are prone to critical work.

The effectiveness of brainstorming is based on a fact that is well known in psychology: during brainstorming, its participants work as powerful generators of ideas, because they are not burdened with the need to justify their proposals and are protected from criticism, which, being a means of revealing shortcomings, also plays a negative role. role - inhibits the expression of thoughts even in not very impressionable people with a strong nervous system.

According to J.N. Jones, six people involved in an attack can come up with 150 ideas in half an hour. The same team working with conventional methods would never have come to the conclusion that the problem they are considering has such a variety of aspects. The repeated and very useful use of "brainstorming" to solve various managerial problems led to the understanding of a number of shortcomings of this form of work. It was improved, the result of which was its variety - multi-stage (cascade) brainstorming.

Without changing anything in the initial requirements of A. Osborne, we began to consider Osborne's "brainstorming" only as the first stage of a broader idea generation system. This stage began to be called search (reconnaissance).

The next step, called counter-dictation, is operationally the same as the first stage, with the only difference that one restriction is imposed on statements about the problem: the same problems must be solved without resorting to the proposals already made. Ideas that are opposite to those previously expressed are approved and supported. The consequence of the implementation of this approach are two opposite lists of proposals for solving the problem. Both of them were obtained in conditions of freedom from criticism, but in total they contain a maximum of proposals and counterproposals. The greatest effect is obtained when the participants in brainstorming at the 1st and 2nd stages are different. For "fresh" people involved in the counter-dictation, the list of proposals received at the first stage will be just a list of restrictions, in which "dead-end" (this is how the leader of the discussion may present it) solutions are fixed. At the same time, emphasizing the need to "not touch" previously received proposals, the moderator does not prohibit their use at all. But use is possible only within sentences that contradict the meaning of the basic (first) list of ideas.

Third stage - synthesis. Here, a specially selected group of people with a pronounced ability for panoramic thinking "combines" sentences in one system and develops a solution that meets the requirements of comprehensiveness.

Fourth stage - forecast. On the basis of a "synthetic" list of ideas, it is proposed to predict the possibilities and difficulties arising from the solution. Procedurally, the forecast is the same as the first stage, but in terms of content, these are different processes.

Fifth stage - generalization. Its meaning lies in the generalization of the ideas received, in the reduction of the whole variety of ideas to a small number of principles from which these ideas could be derived even without prior knowledge of them. These principles act as backbone features for grouping proposals.

In order to test the results obtained "for strength", it is useful to organize one more (sixth) step in the "cascade brain attack" - destructive. Its task is to "defeat" proposals from various positions: managerial, logical, factual, implementation, value, ethical, social. At the same time, the rule of freedom of attack participants from criticism is not violated here. It is necessary to criticize previously formulated ideas, but not each other. To increase the efficiency of the destruction stage, it is necessary:

)careful objectification of ideas (in their formulation and presentation there should not even be a hint of authorship);

2)heterogeneous (intellectually and professionally of different quality) composition of the group;

)administrative and legal independence of the participants of the destructive stage from the organizers of the development.

In order not to violate the general democratic way of "production" of ideas, at any stage of the attack, the leader is not recommended to be excessively rigid in the qualification of statements. In practice, this means that if the proposed idea does not directly relate to the task of this stage, the facilitator should ask to bring it to its "logical end" by continuing, reformulating, replacing individual concepts, etc. etc. Another tactic of the leader's behavior is also possible: he "carries" ideas into stages, in other words, "prescribes" according to his meaningful address. For example, at the moment of destruction, someone accidentally expresses a constructive thought. It is not canceled as "irrelevant", but is publicly entered by the manager in the material received at one of the previous stages. At the same time, attention is drawn to the fact that this idea does not have the right to be beyond criticism. She (but not her producer) undergoes destruction along with all other proposals.

Such a multi-stage system of brainstorming somewhat slows down the process of mental work compared to brainstorming in its classical form. But it is capable of solving problems of the highest degree of complexity. Cascading brainstorming is an extremely powerful tool for organizing the thinking of leaders and an equally powerful tool for training the mentality of managers.

To understand the possibilities of intellectual gymnastics, it is necessary to clarify the intellectual qualities that a leader needs to develop or develop in order to successfully solve modern management problems. And in the first place here is the training of his problem thinking. The enterprise will not be able to keep up with the requirements of competition if it does not develop. The development of an enterprise implies the focus of its leaders on real problems, the solution of which can raise both the organization and, accordingly, the quality of products to a higher level. Simplified symbolism, which makes it possible to distinguish problem situations from non-problem ones, can be represented as follows.

P + V - non-problematic situation: the organization has needs (P), there are also opportunities (B) to satisfy them;

P ± V - a quasi-problem situation: the organization has needs (P), not all possibilities (B) of satisfaction are available;

P - V - an ideal problem situation: the organization has needs (P), there are no opportunities (V) to satisfy them.

It is not difficult to see the problem in the P-E situation, because it is simply something that interferes with the normal functioning of the organization or its development at the moment, or even stops the functioning of the organization. It is more difficult with the P ± V formula. Here you need to understand what exactly in the opportunities you need to find, discover, disclose and formulate in order to bring them into line with the needs of the organization. It is even more difficult with the P + V formula. There is no problem here: needs are satisfied on the basis of available opportunities. However, studies show that it is at the level of P + V that a leader manages to achieve the greatest success in developing his organization if he can represent P + V as P - V or as P ± V, and solve as problems that which by the original definition are not problems. is an.

The ability to turn P + V situations into P - V situations, or at least into P ± V situations, is a matter of special concern for mind gymnastics coaches.

In the language of psychologists, the ability to see "on the contrary" sounds like a recognition of a person's ability to see problems where everything is clear to others, where he is dealing with systems that work well or even flawlessly. It is one thing to solve the problems of lack of opportunities (a very important condition for the normal functioning of the organization), another thing, starting from the flawless operation of the system, is to solve problems that practically do not manifest themselves in any way. It is clear that the vision of such "non-existent" problems is much more important than the sensitivity to real P-V or P-V.

The strongest means of developing the manager's thinking is the use of so-called quasi-problems and quasi-tasks. Quasi-problems and quasi-tasks are real problems or tasks expressed in a simplified language (to ensure understanding by people with different levels of training). These are, so to speak, real problems dressed in someone else's clothes. One of the advantages of quasi-problems is that no equipment or material resources are required to solve them. Another advantage is the ability to create special packages of quasi-problems to develop the ability to solve various types of practical, scientific and other problems.

The training effect of using quasi-problems is based on the law of transference, which has long been known in psychology, the essence of which is that solving problems (tasks) in one area makes it easier for a person to solve problems (tasks) in other areas by training mental decision mechanisms, which are basically the same in various fields of activity.

Quasi-problems and quasi-problems differ not only in their specialization, but also in the level of problem complexity they are designed to solve.

In their specific form, quasi-problems are extremely diverse: from some “completely unsolvable” puzzle to a situation that must be completed in a certain way (completion, bringing to a “norm”, generalization, transfer to another system of concepts, design, etc.) .

There are many ways to train and develop thinking. This is the impact on him by means that develop the accelerated perception of visual and acoustic information, and special intellectual games, and the method of choosing non-standard "posts" of observation, and the gymnastics of the senses, used to raise the tone of the "second program" of solving problems - emotional, here and development called intellectual sensitivity through impersonation's techniques. the object of study, here and much more, which it would be nice to know about a person who intends to "get wiser", that is, increase his ability to solve his problems. But to develop thinking with the help of a book, outside the living process of people's creative communication, is not the most economical way of training.

The experience of training people's thinking is available not only in Russia. Interesting for our purposes, in particular, the Japanese experience in the development of intellectual abilities. It is based in Japan, like many other things, on the traditions of the development of thinking that originated many centuries ago, but basically have not lost their significance in our time. Only in the culture of the Japanese mentality can such a task, for example, as a person clap his hands and ask to listen to him, have a meaningful meaning and training value. Question: what will clap with one hand sound like? Apparently, only within the framework of Japanese culture can you understand tasks of this type, such as "when the wind blows, the cooper gets rich", which must be given a reasonable, logically justified and convincing interpretation. In the Japanese version, it looks like this: when the wind blows, dust rises, dust enters the eyes of people and causes loss of vision, loss of vision leads to an increase in the number of blind people who earn money by playing the shamisen (plucked instrument), this leads to an increase in the demand for shamisen, for the manufacture of which cat skins are required, cats are killed, the number of rats increases, rats begin to gnaw through barrels, barrels are given for repair or bought, the cooper grows rich.

Tasks of this kind for restoring (inventing) links between two groups of words that are outwardly unrelated to each other turned out to be quite suitable for training the imagination of Russian managers, without which no market (simulating situations that do not yet exist) thinking is possible.

The peculiar game exercises that have long existed in Russia with the use of paradoxes of such a type as:

· the more experienced the worker, the less useful he is;

· the better the organization of the case, the less hope for success;

· the more the worker knows, the worse it is for the business;

· the higher the rank of the leader, the less useful he is, and so on.

The trainee was required to:

· explain the meaning of the paradox (what is meant);

· to bind the paradox to reality in order to demonstrate its fidelity in any situation (to find the conditions under which the paradox is no longer a paradox);

· translate it into a positive by transforming (replacing words.) in such a way that it corresponds to real situations.

A very exotic form of intellectual training is the use of anecdotes, or rather, the setting of tasks to continue the anecdote to a ridiculous conclusion. For example, the coach starts a joke, but cuts off the story and asks to continue it in such a way that it ends up being funny.

If a person has learned and manages to complete jokes in such a way that it causes a positive reaction from experts (simply - laughter), this is evidence that a person is naturally given the ability to solve serious intellectual problems or he has trained this ability. The idea of ​​this training was given by the outstanding Soviet aircraft designer O. K. Antonov, who, in response to a bad question, why his desktop is "littered" with collections of jokes, quite seriously answered the following in meaning: the process of constructing an anecdote is akin to solving a design problem. And if I taught a person to "build" jokes, I advanced him in the ability to create or improve technical devices. By the way, O.K. Antonov also used anecdotes to recognize the ability to solve design problems. He began to tell a joke, asked the candidate for the position to join him and help complete it. The sympathies of O.K. Antonov turned out to be on the side of the person who did it better and faster. The logic here is simple. If the candidate was able to complete the anecdote, this meant that he was able to resolve intellectual paradoxes that have the same structure no matter where and in what area they arise: in management, construction, or at a party. If setting the task to complete the construction of anecdotes is a kind of paradoxes, then the ability to complete the construction of anecdotal paradoxes at first turns out to be at the same time the ability to solve, for example, such a type of problem as: to increase the speed of an aircraft without changing its engine and aerodynamics.

The law of transference discovered in psychology explains why this is possible. Being trained on one class of problems changes for the better our ability to solve problems in other areas.

One of the reasons why, despite the pressure of "serious" scientists, jokes are left in the arsenal of intellectual gymnastics as a material for training the ability to solve serious constructive problems, is that there is no academic (scholarly) tediousness in the use of jokes and their use performs simultaneously with the training function of turning on the so-called relaxed concentration, which, as professional psychologists know, is a prerequisite for the emancipation of the psyche and the transfer of thinking to a state that most of all corresponds to the concept of optimality.

According to the research of A. Luk, the attitude to humor in general and to anecdotes in particular is an indicator of the level of development of the human mind. A study of the problem of humor has shown that the most ardent opponents of humor in serious matters are the most intellectually narrow-minded people. Their abilities do not extend beyond solving problems and making decisions "from now to now."

It is only necessary to take into account in this case that both humor in general and anecdotes in particular can themselves be of different levels and, accordingly, of different degrees of intellectuality and intelligence.

Knowledge of problem solving methods obtained in the learning process (at school or university), and logically rigorous approaches to them do not in themselves lead to solutions. Something is missing to be successful. This is what is called intuition.

Intellectual gymnastics at the modern level contains a lot of material, "penetrating" all its sections devoted to the training of intuition. And this is explained very simply. In most cases, businessmen rely on their intuition when solving a problem and making a decision. They have nothing else to do, as soon as the logical method does not work. But after all, neither in a general education school nor in a higher educational institution did anyone train his intuition and, as a rule, did not even mention it in the classroom. Meanwhile, a serious practical development of the problem of intuition in our country (USSR) was undertaken more than 30 years ago.

The most painful issue for an entrepreneur is how to learn to "look" into the non-existent (into the future) in order to determine the correct actions in the present. We note right away that the word "infallible" in relation to the actions of a businessman is a very bold exaggeration. Nearly 40% of business failures are due to the inability of managers to anticipate future economic conditions. And this is already an order to train managers' ability to predict, which, although it does not give an absolutely accurate picture of future economic conditions, nevertheless reduces the risk of erroneous commercial and other business decisions by almost 60%.

That is why in intellectual gymnastics a large place is given to training forecasting methods, which have been quite actively developed in the USSR since the early 60s.

Conclusion

The personality of the manager is multifaceted and the success of his activity is important not only for him, but for the whole team. The effectiveness of his activity can be revealed using the expert characteristics of the leader's personality proposed by Kishkel.

Correspondence of personal characteristics to the content of the activity is an indispensable condition for its successful implementation. This is especially important for activities with a high level of responsibility. These include the activities of the leader (manager, organizer). When deciding on the selection of leaders, the formation of a personnel reserve, data on the level of organizational abilities and organizational orientation of the leader's personality can provide significant assistance. A conclusion about these qualities of a leader can be made by a psychologist based on an assessment of certain psychological characteristics of the leader’s personality, for example:

.Certainty - reveals the structure of interests in various aspects of their activities.

2.Awareness - awareness of the goals of organizational activity.

.Purposefulness is the priority of the motives of organizational activity.

.Selectivity - the ability to deeply and fully reflect the psychological characteristics of the team.

.Tact is the ability to maintain a sense of proportion and find the best form of relationship.

.Efficiency - the ability to captivate people, activate their activity, find the best means of emotional and volitional influences and choose the right moment for their application.

.Demandingness - the ability to be exacting in various forms, depending on the characteristics of a particular managerial situation.

.Criticality - the ability to detect and express deviations from established norms that are significant for the activity.

.Responsibility - the ability to take responsibility for the results of their activities and the activities of the team.

A special role in the success of the leader is played by the methods of developing and strengthening memory, methods of dynamic reading, the use of "brainstorming" methods, the development of intuition and the ability to predict future situations, and solve problems.

Table 1. Reminder of the principles of memory training

Principles Contents The principle of taking into account the individual characteristics of memory To increase the capacity of memory, it is necessary to know the strengths and weaknesses of each person's memory in terms of such characteristics as: capacity, strength, accuracy and readiness. it is necessary to firmly establish for what purposes they intend to improve memory. The principle of "selfishness" (interest) It is easier to remember what is a direct object of a person's personal interest. the principle of the seven) The strength of memorization, the speed and accuracy of reproduction depend on the number of elements of the material to be memorized; the maximum number of such elements is seven

Table 2. Reminder of memory enhancement methods

Method outer kompensatsiiMetod tsepiMetod protivorechiyaMetod minimizatsiiLogichesky metodMetod perekodirovaniyaMetod art oformleniyaPriem use napominateleyPriem kryuchkaPriem create contrast fonaPriem use base ponyatiyPriem logical vyvodaPriem geometry creation smyslaPriem pictorial image materialaOrganizatsiya working mestaPostroenie semantic derevaParadoksalnoe expression soderzhaniyaLiterny priemPrognozirovanie posledstviyPestry konspektEmpatiya RelaksatsiyaPerebor tsepiPostroenie antinomiyRedaktirovaniePriem modelirovaniyaPerevod another yazykObraznye opredeleniyaTablichny matrix priemPriem absurd examples of the "seal "of materialUsing analogies (similarity) Using marginaliaCaricature of meaningMemorization through forgettingBlock techniqueBringing conclusions to their logical end (absurdity) Building a proof of the need to remember

Table 3. Dynamic reading technique

Rules Disadvantages Use only the visual channel for perceiving information Try to see the word not as a letter sequence, but as a separate sign according to its general outlines (psychologically, this is similar to recognizing a person’s face at one glance, without sorting through individual features) Move on to the simultaneous perception of several words Move your eyes not from left to right, but from top to bottom in the middle of the page (along a conditional line dividing the page in half); to capture as much text as possible on the sides of the conditional line, use "peripheral vision" Do not allow any returns during reading Quick reading is a low-critical process It almost does not cause associations If it is taught without caring about the need to develop creativity, a person with characteristic features is brought up dogmatic thinking Accelerated accumulation of information, increasing the dependence of the creative capabilities of the intellect of a specialist on erudition, leads to the paradox "erudite-amateur" To use the knowledge accumulated during accelerated reading, a new (internal) reading is required

Table 4. Discrete reading technique purpose - neutralization of the harmful effects of accelerated reading

RecognitionMinimizationGeneration1. Determining the place of the material in the system of previously accumulated knowledge1. Reducing the source material without distorting the meaning by editorial editing 1. Putting forward new ideas based on "subtracted" by combining them2. Establishing connections between the material and the material of other texts2. The same way of transcoding (arrangement in your own words) 2. The same by extrapolation (interpolation)3. Definition of internal links in the text3. Comparison of the conclusions that people get when they read the original and processed material 3. The same by finding backbone relations4. Identification of the main4. Compilation of activity guides based on full and abbreviated texts and their comparison4. Reshaping the text 5. Establishing the subordination of various elements of the text5. Forecasting consequences6. Finding places (concepts, definitions, statements) related to the subject 6. Explanation of material from other (not contained in the text) principles7. Use of marginal language 7. Working out the opposite position8. Use colorful note-taking 8. Scientific compromise of the ideas and/or arguments contained in the text

Table 5. Osborne brainstorming rule reminder

GenerationObjectificationSelection1. A clear statement of the problem that requires short answers1. Fixation of all statements (stenography, tape recorder.) 1. Revealing the reality or unreality of the proposal2. Prohibition of criticism in any form 2. Grouping ideas according to meaning and purpose 2. Determining the significance of ideas by the criterion of direct realizability3. Encouragement: a) any short statements without argumentation; b) development of the proposed ideas; c) fantastic associations and examples3. "Release" of statements from personal characteristics by standard recording of ideas3. Identification of ideas in need of constructive development4. Generation time per session - no more than 2 hours

Table 6. Reminder of stages of cascading brainstorming

Stages Activity content 1. SearchFully complies with Osborne's 2 brainstorming rules. Contradictation The same as stage 1, but with one limitation: the same problem must be solved on the basis of ideas opposite to those obtained in the first stage; the corollary of counter-dictation is the second opposite list of ideas. Synthesis Combining 2 lists of ideas in one system4. Forecasting Based on a single list of ideas, ideas about future opportunities arising from the solution of the problem; Criticism of participants in the attack is prohibited5. Generalization The reduction of a variety of ideas to a small number of principles from which these ideas can be derived; criticism is prohibited. Destruction (compromising) "Destruction" (criticism) of the received system of knowledge from managerial, logical, factual, value, ethical, aesthetic, social positions; criticism of the participants in the attack is prohibited

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