The question that still torments modern philological researchers is this: what alphabet did the brothers invent - Glagolitic or Cyrillic?
Both the Glagolitic alphabet and the Cyrillic alphabet are two alphabets with which the monuments of the Slavic language that have reached us were written.
Both Glagolitic and Cyrillic are two alphabets of the Slavic language
Nowadays we don’t use the Glagolitic alphabet at all: in the eyes of modern people, it is a set of letters that are incomprehensible in design. Cyrillic is much more familiar to us: this alphabet is the basis of modern Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Serbian and Bulgarian languages. There is an opinion that it originated on the territory of the first Bulgarian state as a kind of compromise between the Bulgarian clergy and nobility, who insisted on conducting services in the language of the local flock, and the dogmatic Greek clergy, who asserted the monopoly position of the Greek language.
However, let us return to the question that haunts modern philology.
The logic and consonance of the words will incline you to the opinion that the Cyrillic alphabet is, without a doubt, the alphabet that was invented by Kirill. However, the Old Church Slavonic sources that have reached us do not provide unambiguous information: they date back to the tenth century, in which both the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabet already existed. Accordingly, it is impossible to establish which alphabet appeared first and which of them was invented by the younger brother of Thessaloniki (both Cyril and Methodius were natives of Thessaloniki). Therefore, this question still remains open.
A little history...
Cyril and Methodius traveled to Great Moravia from the Byzantine capital after the Moravian prince Rostislav came to Constantinople with an unusual request. The Christian principality under his control on the Middle Danube was subordinate to a bishop in the German town of Passau, but Rostislav wanted to have his own bishop and people preaching not in Latin, but in a language understandable to local residents. In order to avoid possible conflicts with the Germans, the emperor and patriarch of Byzantium sent not a new bishop to Moravia, but the already well-known educators Cyril and Methodius with the words: “You are Thessalonians, and all Thessalonians speak pure Slavic.”
Both brothers had unique strengths: Methodius, for example, before being tonsured was the governor of one of the Byzantine provinces, which developed in him the talent of an organizer and a person versed in the laws. Cyril, in turn, was an experienced polemicist on religious issues: he took part in Byzantine embassies to the Arab Caliphate, and went to the Lower Volga to the Khazars.
Also, the younger Thessalonian was distinguished by his exceptional ability for languages: he knew Arabic, Hebrew and Syriac, and was interested in comparative grammar. It was Kirill who said about the need to create a new alphabet: “Who can write a conversation on water and not be branded a heretic?” - I mean that the inhabitants of Moravia did not have their own alphabet.
Before becoming a monk, Methodius was the governor of one of the Byzantine provinces
During the three and a half years of their stay in Moravia, the brothers translated all the texts for worship from Greek, and also taught several dozen people new literacy. Their work was not without difficulties: the Latin clergy, represented by the Germans, strongly opposed any translations, insisting that texts could only be studied in one of the three “sacred” languages - Hebrew/Latin/Greek, while in the languages of the local flock they can only be subject to explanation. Cyril and Methodius, accused of heresy, were summoned by Pope Nicholas I, but he died before their arrival. His successor, Andrian II, greeted the “Slavic apostles” cordially: he allowed services in the Slavic language in some Roman churches, and the disciples of Cyril and Methodius with his consent were able to become priests.
Together, Cyril and Methodius translated almost the entire Bible and translated the Nomocanon, a collection of teachings for the main holidays of the church. They also compiled the first legal monument in the Slavic language - “The Law of Judgment for People.”
On his deathbed, February 14, 869, Cyril said to his brother Methodius: “You and I, like two oxen, plowed the same furrow. I am exhausted, but don’t think about leaving the work of teaching and retiring to your mountain again.” Methodius heeded his instructions and continued to educate his students, engage in literary work and translations along with the post of archbishop, to which he was soon appointed.
“Life is given to man so that it serves him, and not he serves it,” one of the brothers once said. But they really succeeded.
Greek Christian missionaries are believed to be brothers Cyril and Methodius in 863 they were invited from Byzantium by Prince Rostislav to the Great Moravian Empire to introduce worship in the Slavic language.
Konstantin the alphabet was created - the so-called "glagolitic", reflecting the phonetic features of the Slavic language. The oldest surviving Glagolitic inscription with precise dating dates back to 893 and was made in the church of the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon in Preslav.
Cyril and Methodius translated the main liturgical books from Greek into Old Church Slavonic.
Later students Methodius created in Bulgaria a new alphabet based on the Glagolitic alphabet, which later received the name "Cyrillic" - in honor of Kirill.
Already in the 20th century, the Pope John Paul II“... more than once emphasized that, being a Slav, I especially strongly felt in my heart the call of those peoples to whom the “apostles of unity” turned - Cyril and Methodius, who took upon themselves the work of “presenting biblical ideas and concepts of Greek theology in a language understood in context of a completely different historical experience and tradition,” they must be understood “by those for whom God Himself intended.”
The Pope, who was especially sensitive to any manifestation of national culture and its identity, saw the main merit of the “apostles of the Slavs” in their desire for the Word of God to “find its expression in the language of any civilization,” warning in every possible way against imposing authorities, languages, and images on other peoples .
He dedicated the encyclical “Apostles of the Slavs” (“Slavorum apostoli”, 1985) and the apostolic letter “Go into the whole world” (“Euntes in mundum universum”, 1988), written on the occasion of the Millennium of the Baptism of Kiev, to the missions of the saints that were especially dear to the Pope. Rus'.
“Saints Cyril and Methodius were formed in the bosom of the Byzantine Church at a time when it was in unity with Rome. Proclaiming them with the saint Benedict patrons of Europe, I sought not only to establish the historical truth about Christianity on the European continent, but also to put forward another important topic for dialogue between East and West, which is associated with so many hopes in the post-conciliar period.
Like in a saint Benedicte, so in Saints Cyril and Methodius Europe found its spiritual origins. And therefore we must honor them together - as the patrons of our past and the saints to whom the Churches and peoples of Europe, at the end of the second Millennium from the Nativity of Christ, entrust their future.”
Elena Tverdislova, And as a sign of love - a rosary as a gift - Preface to the book: John Paul II, M., “Rudomino Book Center”, 2011, p. 30-31.
“... the emergence of Slavic writing is associated with the second half of the 9th century (863), when, as a result of the initiative of the rulers of the Great Moravian Principality, Greek missionaries Kirill (Konstantin) And Methodius, having created a very advanced graphic system for one of the types of Slavic speech, began to translate some parts of the Bible and create other liturgical texts.
The Old Church Slavonic language became the common literary language of the Slavs of the Middle Ages.
Among all Western Slavs, it was soon supplanted by the Latin language due to Western influence and the transition to Catholicism.
Therefore, the further use of the Old Church Slavonic language is associated primarily with the Slavic south (Bulgaria, Serbia) and the east (Kievan state, then Muscovite Rus', Belarusian and Ukrainian lands). The use of Old Church Slavonic as a literary language led to the fact that this language was primarily subjected to grammatical processing.”
Kondrashov N.A., History of linguistic teachings, M., “Komkniga”, 2006, p. 31.
Not all people know what May 24 is famous for, but it is even impossible to imagine what would have happened to us if this day in 863 had turned out to be completely different and the creators of writing had abandoned their work.
Who created Slavic writing in the 9th century? These were Cyril and Methodius, and this event happened on May 24, 863, which led to the celebration of one of the most important events in the history of mankind. Now the Slavic peoples could use their own writing, and not borrow the languages of other peoples.
The creators of Slavic writing - Cyril and Methodius?
The history of the development of Slavic writing is not as “transparent” as it might seem at first glance; there are different opinions about its creators. There is an interesting fact that Cyril, even before he began working on the creation of the Slavic alphabet, was in Chersonesus (today it is Crimea), from where he was able to take the sacred writings of the Gospel or the Psalter, which at that moment turned out to be written precisely in the letters of the Slavic alphabet. This fact makes you wonder: who created the Slavic writing; did Cyril and Methodius really write the alphabet or take a finished work?
However, in addition to the fact that Cyril brought a ready-made alphabet from Chersonesos, there is other evidence that the creators of Slavic writing were other people, who lived long before Cyril and Methodius.
Arab sources of historical events say that 23 years before Cyril and Methodius created the Slavic alphabet, namely in the 40s of the 9th century, there were baptized people who held books written in the Slavic language in their hands. There is also another serious fact that proves that the creation of Slavic writing occurred even earlier than the stated date. The bottom line is that Pope Leo IV had a diploma issued before 863, which consisted precisely of the letters of the Slavic alphabet, and this figure was on the throne in the interval from 847 to 855 of the 9th century.
Another, but also important, fact of proof of the more ancient origin of Slavic writing lies in the statement of Catherine II, who during her reign wrote that the Slavs are a more ancient people than is commonly believed, and they have had writing since the times before the birth of Christ.
Evidence of antiquity from other nations
The creation of Slavic writing before 863 can be proven by other facts that are present in the documents of other peoples who lived in ancient times and used other types of writing in their time. There are quite a few such sources, and they are found in the Persian historian named Ibn Fodlan, in El Massudi, as well as in slightly later creators in fairly well-known works, which say that Slavic writing was formed before the Slavs had books.
A historian who lived on the border of the 9th and 10th centuries argued that the Slavic people are more ancient and more developed than the Romans, and as proof he cited some monuments that make it possible to determine the antiquity of the origin of the Slavic people and their writing.
And the last fact that can seriously influence the train of thought of people in search of an answer to the question of who created the Slavic writing is coins with different letters of the Russian alphabet, dated earlier than 863, and located in the territories of such European countries like England, Scandinavia, Denmark and others.
Refutation of the ancient origin of Slavic writing
The supposed creators of Slavic writing missed the mark a little: they did not leave any books and documents written in this language. However, for many scientists it is enough that Slavic writing is present on various stones, rocks, weapons and household items that were used by the ancient inhabitants in their Everyday life.
Many scientists worked on studying historical achievements in the writing of the Slavs, but a senior researcher named Grinevich was able to get almost to the very source, and his work made it possible to decipher any text written in the ancient Slavic language.
Grinevich's work in the study of Slavic writing
In order to understand the writing of the ancient Slavs, Grinevich had to do a lot of work, during which he discovered that it was not based on letters, but had a more complex system that worked through syllables. The scientist himself absolutely seriously believed that the formation of the Slavic alphabet began 7,000 years ago.
The signs of the Slavic alphabet had a different basis, and after grouping all the symbols, Grinevich identified four categories: linear, dividing symbols, pictorial and limiting signs.
For the study, Grinevich used about 150 different inscriptions that were present on all kinds of objects, and all his achievements were based on deciphering these particular symbols.
During his research, Grinevich found out that the history of Slavic writing is older, and the ancient Slavs used 74 characters. However, for an alphabet there are too many characters, and if we talk about whole words, then there cannot be only 74 of them in the language. These reflections led the researcher to the idea that the Slavs used syllables instead of letters in the alphabet.
Example: “horse” - syllable “lo”
His approach made it possible to decipher the inscriptions that many scientists struggled with and could not understand what they meant. But it turned out that everything is quite simple:
- The pot, which was found near Ryazan, had an inscription - instructions that said that it should be put in the oven and closed.
- The sinker, which was found near the city of Trinity, had a simple inscription: “Weighs 2 ounces.”
All of the above-described evidence completely refutes the fact that the creators of Slavic writing are Cyril and Methodius, and prove the antiquity of our language.
Slavic runes in the creation of Slavic writing
The one who created the Slavic writing was a rather smart and brave person, because such an idea at that time could destroy the creator due to the lack of education of all other people. But besides writing, other options for disseminating information to people were invented - Slavic runes.
A total of 18 runes have been found in the world, which are present on a large number of different ceramics, stone statues and other artifacts. Examples include ceramic products from the village of Lepesovka, located in southern Volyn, as well as a clay vessel in the village of Voiskovo. In addition to evidence located on the territory of Russia, there are monuments that are located in Poland and were discovered back in 1771. They also contain Slavic runes. We should not forget the temple of Radegast, located in Retra, where the walls are decorated with Slavic symbols. The last place that scientists learned about from Thietmar of Merseburg is a fortress-temple and is located on an island called Rügen. There are a large number of idols, whose names are written using runes of Slavic origin.
Slavic writing. Cyril and Methodius as creators
The creation of writing is attributed to Cyril and Methodius, and in support of this, historical data are provided for the corresponding period of their lives, which is described in some detail. They touch on the meaning of their activities, as well as the reasons for working on the creation of new symbols.
Cyril and Methodius was led to the creation of the alphabet by the conclusion that other languages cannot fully reflect Slavic speech. This constraint is proven by the works of the monk Khrabra, in which it is noted that before the adoption of the Slavic alphabet for general use, baptism was carried out either in Greek or in Latin, and already in those days it became clear that they cannot reflect all the sounds that fill our speech .
Political influence on the Slavic alphabet
Politics began its influence on society from the very beginning of the birth of countries and religions, and it also had its hand in other aspects of people's lives.
As described above, the baptism services of the Slavs were conducted in either Greek or Latin, which allowed other churches to influence the minds and strengthen the idea of their dominant role in the minds of the Slavs.
Those countries where the liturgies were conducted not in Greek, but in Latin, received increased influence of German priests on the faith of the people, but for the Byzantine Church this was unacceptable, and it took a reciprocal step, entrusting Cyril and Methodius with the creation of writing, in which it would be written service and sacred texts.
The Byzantine Church reasoned correctly at that moment, and its plans were such that whoever created the Slavic writing based on the Greek alphabet would help weaken the influence of the German Church on all Slavic countries at the same time and at the same time help bring the people closer to Byzantium. These actions can also be seen as motivated by self-interest.
Who created Slavic writing based on the Greek alphabet? They were created by Cyril and Methodius, and it was not by chance that they were chosen by the Byzantine Church for this work. Kirill grew up in the city of Thessaloniki, which, although Greek, about half of its inhabitants spoke fluent Slavic, and Kirill himself was well versed in it and also had an excellent memory.
Byzantium and its role
There is quite a serious debate about when the work on creating Slavic writing began, since May 24 is the official date, but there is a large gap in history that creates a discrepancy.
After Byzantium gave this difficult task, Cyril and Methodius began developing Slavic writing and in 864 arrived in Moravia with a ready-made Slavic alphabet and a fully translated Gospel, where they recruited students for the school.
After receiving a task from the Byzantine Church, Cyril and Methodius head to Morvia. During their journey, they are engaged in writing the alphabet and translating the texts of the Gospel into the Slavic language, and upon arrival in the city, the finished works are in their hands. However, the road to Moravia does not take that much time. Perhaps this time period makes it possible to create an alphabet, but it is simply impossible to translate the Gospel letters in such a short period of time, which indicates advance work on the Slavic language and translation of texts.
Kirill's illness and care
After three years of working in his own school of Slavic writing, Kirill abandoned this business and left for Rome. This turn of events was caused by illness. Kirill left everything for a peaceful death in Rome. Methodius, finding himself alone, continues to pursue his goal and does not retreat back, although now it has become more difficult for him, because the Catholic Church has begun to understand the scale of the work done and is not delighted with it. The Roman Church imposes bans on translations into the Slavic language and openly demonstrates its dissatisfaction, but Methodius now has followers who help and continue his work.
Cyrillic and Glagolitic - what laid the foundation for modern writing?
There are no confirmed facts that can prove which of the writing systems originated earlier, and there is no exact information about who created the Slavic one and which of the two possible ones Cyril had a hand in. Only one thing is known, but the most important thing is that it was the Cyrillic alphabet that became the founder of today’s Russian alphabet and only thanks to it we can write the way we write now.
The Cyrillic alphabet contains 43 letters, and the fact that its creator was Cyril proves the presence of 24 in it. And the remaining 19 were included by the creator of the Cyrillic alphabet based on the Greek alphabet solely to reflect complex sounds that were present only among peoples who used the Slavic language for communication.
Over time, the Cyrillic alphabet has been transformed, almost constantly influenced in order to simplify and improve it. However, there were moments that made writing difficult at first, for example, the letter “ё”, which is an analogue of “e”, and the letter “th” - an analogue of “i”. Such letters made spelling difficult at first, but reflected their corresponding sounds.
Glagolitic, in fact, was an analogue of the Cyrillic alphabet and used 40 letters, 39 of which were taken specifically from the Cyrillic alphabet. The main difference between the Glagolitic alphabet is that it has a more rounded writing style and is not inherently angular, unlike Cyrillic.
The disappeared alphabet (Glagolitic), although it did not take root, was intensively used by the Slavs living in the southern and western latitudes, and, depending on the location of the inhabitants, it had its own writing styles. The Slavs living in Bulgaria used the Glagolitic alphabet with a more rounded style to write, while the Croatians gravitated towards an angular script.
Despite the number of hypotheses and even the absurdity of some of them, each is worthy of attention, and it is impossible to accurately answer who the creators of Slavic writing were. The answers will be vague, with many flaws and shortcomings. And although there are many facts that refute the creation of writing by Cyril and Methodius, they are honored for their work, which allowed the alphabet to spread and transform into its present form.
I didn’t invite you to visit, so you don’t have to open the door......it’s like two fingers on the asphalt for you.....
How does the alphabet differ from the alphabet? The word “alphabet” comes from the names of the first two letters of the Slavic alphabet: A (az) and B (buki)
Before Cyril and Methodius, there were 49 letters in the Slavic ABC. But 2 of them denoted sounds that were not used in Greek speech - and these letters were abolished. And then the Slavic ABC only grew thinner:
Initially, the Slavic ABC looked like this:
Az Gods V'di Verbs Good Is I'm Zhot Zelo Earth Izhe Izhei Init Herv Kako People Myslte Our On Peace Ratsi S'lov Tvardo Uk Ouk Fer't *' Ot Qi Chervl Sha Shta Er' Ery Er Yat Yun Ar Edo Om En Od Yota Ota Xi Psi Fita Izhitsa Izha
And now like this:
A B C D E F G H H I J J K L M N O P R S T U V
The Greek letter formed the basis of the Latin alphabet, and in the 9th century the Slavic letter was created by using letters of the Greek alphabet. The great work of creating the Slavic alphabet was accomplished by the brothers Constantine (who took the name Cyril at baptism) and Methodius. The main merit in this matter belongs to Kirill. Methodius was his faithful assistant. Compiling the Slavic alphabet, Kirill was able to discern in the sound of the Slavic language he had known since childhood (and this was probably one of the dialects of the ancient Bulgarian language) the basic sounds of this language and find letter designations for each of them. When reading Old Church Slavonic, we pronounce the words as they are written. In the Old Church Slavonic language we will not find such a discrepancy between the sound of words and their pronunciation, as, for example, in English or French. The Slavic book language (Old Church Slavonic) became widespread as a common language for many Slavic peoples. It was used by the Southern Slavs (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats), Western Slavs (Czechs, Slovaks), Eastern Slavs (Ukrainians, Belarusians, Russians). In memory of the great feat of Cyril and Methodius, the Day of Slavic Literature is celebrated all over the world on May 24.
The alphabet is much older than the alphabet. In the 9th century there was no alphabet, and the Slavs did not have their own letters. And therefore there was no writing. The Slavs could not write books or even letters to each other in their language. How and where did our alphabet come from, and why is it called Cyrillic?
In the 9th century in Byzantium, in the city of Thessaloniki (now the city of Thessaloniki in Greece), two brothers lived - Constantine and Methodius. They were wise and very educated people and knew the Slavic language well. The Greek king Michael sent these brothers to the Slavs in response to the request of the Slavic prince Rostislav. (Rostislav asked to send teachers who could tell the Slavs about the holy Christian books, book words unknown to them and their meaning). And so the brothers Constantine and Methodius came to the Slavs to create the Slavic alphabet, which later became known as the Cyrillic alphabet. (In honor of Constantine, who, having become a monk, received the name Cyril). How did they create the alphabet?
Cyril and Methodius took the Greek alphabet and adapted it to the sounds of the Slavic language. So our alphabet is a “daughter” of the Greek alphabet. Many of our letters are taken from the Greek alphabet, which is why they look similar to them.
Before his death, Kirill told his brother: “You and I, like two oxen, drove the same furrow. I am exhausted, but don’t think about leaving the work of teaching and retiring to your mountain again.” Methodius outlived his brother by 16 years. Enduring hardships and reproaches, he continued his great work - translating holy books into Slavic, preaching the Orthodox faith, and baptizing the Slavic people. On April 6, 885, he died, leaving as his successor the best of his students, Archbishop Gorazd and about two hundred Slavic priests trained by him.
Manuscripts from the 10th and 11th centuries are written in two different alphabets. Some are written in Cyrillic, others in Glagolitic. But which of these two alphabets is older? That is, what script were written in the unsurvived manuscripts of Cyril and Methodius' times? A number of facts indicate that the Glagolitic alphabet should be considered the more ancient alphabet. The most ancient monuments (including the "Kyiv Leaves") are written precisely in the Glagolitic alphabet, and they are written in a more archaic language, similar in phonetic composition to the language of the southern Slavs. Palimpsests (manuscripts on parchment in which the old text has been scraped off and a new one written on it) also indicate the great antiquity of the Glagolitic alphabet. On all surviving palimpsests, the Glagolitic alphabet has been scraped off and the new text is written in Cyrillic. There is not a single palimpsest in which the Cyrillic alphabet has been scraped off and the Glagolitic alphabet written on it. There are other facts that indicate the greater antiquity of the Glagolitic alphabet, but it would take too long to list them. So, in modern Slavic studies no one doubts that the learned men Constantine the Philosopher (after accepting monasticism Cyril) and his brother Methodius “transferred” the sounds of the Slavic language onto parchment using the alphabet that today is commonly called the Glagolitic alphabet. Later (apparently at the council in Preslav, the capital of the Bulgarian king Simeon in 893), the Cyrillic alphabet appeared, which eventually replaced the Glagolitic alphabet in all Slavic countries, with the exception of Northern Dalmatia (Adriatic coast), where Catholic Croats continued to write Glagolitic alphabet until the end of the last century.
In Cyrillic, the letters have a simpler and clearer form for us. We don’t know which alphabet was invented by Konstantin, but it was the Cyrillic alphabet that was the basis of our Russian alphabet
The holy Slovenian teachers strove for solitude and prayer, but in life they constantly found themselves in the forefront - both when they defended Christian truths before Muslims, and when they took on great educational work. Their success sometimes looked like defeat, but as a result, it is to them that we owe the acquisition of “the gift of the most valuable and greater than all silver, and gold, and precious stones, and all transitory wealth.” This gift is .
Brothers from Thessalonica
The Russian language was baptized back in the days when our ancestors did not consider themselves Christians - in the ninth century. In the west of Europe, the heirs of Charlemagne divided the Frankish empire, in the East the Muslim states strengthened, squeezing Byzantium, and in the young Slavic principalities, Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius, the true founders of our culture, preached and worked.
The history of the activities of the holy brothers has been studied with all possible care: the surviving written sources have been commented on many times, and pundits argue about the details of the biographies and acceptable interpretations of the received information. And how could it be otherwise when we are talking about the creators of the Slavic alphabet? And yet, to this day, the images of Cyril and Methodius are lost behind the abundance of ideological constructions and simple inventions. The Khazar Dictionary by Milorad Pavic, in which the enlighteners of the Slavs are embedded in a multifaceted theosophical mystification, is not the worst option.
Kirill, the youngest in both age and hierarchical rank, was simply a layman until the end of his life and received monastic tonsure with the name Kirill only on his deathbed. While Methodius, the elder brother, held great positions, was the ruler of a separate region of the Byzantine Empire, abbot of a monastery and ended his life as an archbishop. And yet, traditionally, Kirill takes honorable first place, and the alphabet - the Cyrillic alphabet - is named after him. All his life he bore another name - Constantine, and also a respectful nickname - Philosopher.
Konstantin was an extremely gifted man. “The speed of his abilities was not inferior to his diligence,” the life, compiled shortly after his death, repeatedly emphasizes the depth and breadth of his knowledge. Translating into the language of modern realities, Constantine the Philosopher was a professor at the capital's University of Constantinople, very young and promising. At the age of 24 (!), he received his first important government assignment - to defend the truth of Christianity in the face of Muslims of other faiths.
Missionary politician
This medieval inseparability of spiritual, religious tasks and state affairs looks bizarre these days. But even for it one can find some analogy in the modern world order. And today, superpowers, the newest empires, base their influence not only on military and economic power. There is always an ideological component, an ideology that is “exported” to other countries. For the Soviet Union it was communism. For the United States, it is a liberal democracy. Some people accept exported ideas peacefully, while others have to resort to bombing.
For Byzantium, Christianity was the doctrine. The strengthening and spread of Orthodoxy was perceived by the imperial authorities as a primary state task. Therefore, as a modern researcher of the Cyril and Methodius heritage writes A.-E. Tahiaos, “a diplomat who entered into negotiations with enemies or “barbarians,” was always accompanied by a missionary.” Constantine was such a missionary. That is why it is so difficult to separate his actual educational activities from his political ones. Just before his death, he symbolically resigned from public service and became a monk.
“I am no longer a servant of the king or anyone else on earth; Only God Almighty was and will be forever,” Kirill will now write.
His life tells about his Arab and Khazar mission, about tricky questions and witty and deep answers. Muslims asked him about the Trinity, how Christians could worship “many gods,” and why, instead of resisting evil, they strengthened the army. Khazar Jews disputed the Incarnation and blamed Christians for non-compliance with Old Testament regulations. Konstantin's answers - bright, figurative and brief - if they did not convince all opponents, then, in any case, they delivered a polemical victory, leading those listening to admiration.
"Nobody else"
The Khazar mission was preceded by events that greatly changed the internal structure of the Solun brothers. At the end of the 50s of the 9th century, both Constantine, a successful scientist and polemicist, and Methodius, shortly before appointed archon (head) of the province, retired from the world and led a solitary ascetic lifestyle for several years. Methodius even takes monastic vows. The brothers were already distinguished by their piety from an early age, and the thought of monasticism was not alien to them; however, there were probably external reasons for such a drastic change: a change in the political situation or the personal sympathies of those in power. However, the lives are silent about this.
But the bustle of the world receded for a while. Already in 860, the Khazar Kagan decided to organize an “interreligious” dispute, in which Christians had to defend the truth of their faith before Jews and Muslims. According to the life, the Khazars were ready to accept Christianity if the Byzantine polemicists “won the upper hand in disputes with the Jews and Saracens.” They found Constantine again, and the emperor personally admonished him with the words: “Go, Philosopher, to these people and talk about the Holy Trinity with Her help. No one else can take on this with dignity.” On the trip, Konstantin took his older brother as his assistant.
The negotiations ended generally successfully, although the Khazar state did not become Christian, the Kagan allowed those who wished to be baptized. There were also political successes. We should pay attention to an important incidental event. On the way, the Byzantine delegation stopped in Crimea, where near modern Sevastopol (ancient Chersonesos) Constantine found the relics of the ancient saint Pope Clement. Subsequently, the brothers will transfer the relics of St. Clement to Rome, which will further win over Pope Adrian. It is with Cyril and Methodius that the Slavs begin their special veneration of Saint Clement - let us remember the majestic church in his honor in Moscow not far from the Tretyakov Gallery.
Sculpture of the Holy Apostles Cyril and Methodius in the Czech Republic. Photo: pragagid.ru
Birth of writing
862 We have reached a historic milestone. This year, the Moravian prince Rostislav sends a letter to the Byzantine emperor with a request to send preachers capable of instructing his subjects in Christianity in the Slavic language. Great Moravia, which at that time included certain areas of the modern Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Hungary, Romania and Poland, was already Christian. But the German clergy enlightened her, and all the services, holy books and theology were Latin, incomprehensible to the Slavs.
And again at court they remember Constantine the Philosopher. If not he, then who else will be able to complete the task, the complexity of which both the emperor and the patriarch, Saint Photius, were aware of?
The Slavs did not have a written language. But it was not even the fact of the absence of letters that presented the main problem. They did not have abstract concepts and the wealth of terminology that usually develops in “book culture.”
High Christian theology, Scripture and liturgical texts had to be translated into a language that did not have any means to do so.
And the Philosopher coped with the task. Of course, one should not imagine that he worked alone. Konstantin again called on his brother for help, and other employees were also involved. It was a kind of scientific institute. The first alphabet - the Glagolitic alphabet - was compiled on the basis of Greek cryptography. The letters correspond to the letters of the Greek alphabet, but look different - so much so that the Glagolitic alphabet was often confused with eastern languages. In addition, for sounds specific to the Slavic dialect, Hebrew letters were taken (for example, “sh”).
Then they translated the Gospel, checked expressions and terms, and translated liturgical books. The volume of translations carried out by the holy brothers and their direct disciples was very significant - by the time of the baptism of Rus', a whole library of Slavic books already existed.
The price of success
However, the activities of educators could not be limited only to scientific and translation research. It was necessary to teach the Slavs new letters, a new book language, a new worship. The transition to a new liturgical language was especially painful. It is not surprising that the Moravian clergy, who had previously followed German practice, reacted with hostility to the new trends. Even dogmatic arguments were put forward against the Slavic translation of services, the so-called trilingual heresy, as if one can only speak to God in “sacred” languages: Greek, Hebrew and Latin.
Dogmatics intertwined with politics, canon law with diplomacy and power ambitions - and Cyril and Methodius found themselves in the center of this tangle. The territory of Moravia was under the jurisdiction of the pope, and although the Western Church was not yet separated from the Eastern, the initiative of the Byzantine emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople (namely, this was the status of the mission) was still viewed with suspicion. The German clergy, closely associated with the secular authorities of Bavaria, saw in the brothers’ undertakings the implementation of Slavic separatism. And indeed, the Slavic princes, in addition to spiritual interests, also pursued state interests - their liturgical language and church independence would have significantly strengthened their position. Finally, the pope was in tense relations with Bavaria, and support for the revitalization of church life in Moravia against the “trilinguals” fit well into the general direction of his policy.
Political controversies cost the missionaries dearly. Due to the constant intrigues of the German clergy, Constantine and Methodius twice had to justify themselves to the Roman high priest. In 869, unable to withstand the overstrain, St. Cyril died (he was only 42 years old), and his work was continued by Methodius, who was ordained to the rank of bishop in Rome soon after. Methodius died in 885, having survived exile, insults and imprisonment that lasted several years.
The most valuable gift
Methodius was succeeded by Gorazd, and already under him the work of the holy brothers in Moravia practically died out: liturgical translations were prohibited, followers were killed or sold into slavery; many fled to neighboring countries themselves. But this was not the end. This was only the beginning of Slavic culture, and therefore Russian culture too. The center of Slavic book literature moved to Bulgaria, then to Russia. Books began to use the Cyrillic alphabet, named after the creator of the first alphabet. Writing grew and became stronger. And today, proposals to abolish Slavic letters and switch to Latin ones, which were actively promoted by People’s Commissar Lunacharsky in the 1920s, sound, thank God, unrealistic.
So the next time, dotting the “e” or agonizing over the Russification of a new version of Photoshop, think about what wealth we have.
Artist Jan Matejko
Very few nations have the honor of having their own alphabet. This was understood already in the distant ninth century.
“God has created even now in our years - having declared the letters for your language - something that was not given to anyone after the first times, so that you too would be numbered among the great nations who glorify God in their own language... Accept the gift, most valuable and greater than any silver, and gold, and precious stones, and all transitory wealth,” wrote Emperor Michael to Prince Rostislav.
And after this we are trying to separate Russian culture from Orthodox culture? Russian letters were invented by Orthodox monks for church books; at the very basis of Slavic book literature lies not just influence and borrowing, but a “transplantation” of Byzantine church book literature. The book language, cultural context, terminology of high thought were created directly together with the library of books by the Slavic apostles Saints Cyril and Methodius.
