In order to present the prospects for the development of an enterprise in the long term, it is necessary to imagine how the volume of product production and, accordingly, the costs of purchasing two variable factors will increase. The task for the manufacturer at each stage of production growth remains the same: it is necessary to optimize the costs of factors x and y and “link” them with the budgetary capabilities of the enterprise (Fig. 76).
By connecting the tangent points of isoquants with isocosts, we obtain the trajectory of expansion of the economic activity of the company or the trajectory of development of the production activity of the enterprise (in Fig. 76 - indicated by the OK arrow).
Firm's growth line (isoclinal): a line that defines the set of optimal production volumes of the firm as a set of tangents to the isocost and isoquant map. The isocline shows the firm's optimal production volumes at different production capacities.
20. Cost theory. Accounting and economic costs. Fixed and variable costs. Total, average and marginal costs of production.
Economic costs.
Costs are the resources expended, expenses (including time spent) on the production of goods and services.
Costs of production represent the expenditure of factors of production in the creation of any good or service. They can be represented as a set of physical or monetary units of resources expended in the manufacture of a product. For example, when creating a bicycle, materials (metal, plastic, rubber), energy are consumed, equipment wears out, and wages are paid to workers and employees. If we express the value of all these resources in monetary units, we get a value expression for the cost of producing a bicycle.
Costs are:
1). Fixed costs (FC) are those that do not depend on changes in production volume. The firm must pay for them even if output is zero. These include interest payments on debt obligations, rental payments, depreciation charges, insurance premiums, payment of personnel occupying key positions.
2). Variable costs (VC) are those that increase as output increases and decrease as output decreases. They include the costs of raw materials, fuel, energy, and payments to the bulk of employees.
3). Total costs are the sum of variable and fixed costs. Their variable part is controllable by manipulating the volume of output, while the constant part cannot be effectively controlled and must be compensated regardless of the volume of output.
4) Average costs are the firm's costs per unit of output. In size, they are equal to the total vehicle costs of producing a certain amount of products, divided by the amount of products produced (d), i.e.
Accounting costs. In accounting, a cost element is understood as economically homogeneous types of expenses. These costs are divided into direct and indirect.
Direct - costs associated with the production of certain types of products (raw materials, basic materials, semi-finished products), which can be included in their cost.
Indirect - costs associated with the production of several types of products. Production costs are divided into current and one-time expenses.
Current expenses - i.e. indirect are ordinary expenses or expenses with a frequency of less than a month.
One-time expenses are one-time expenses or expenses that are incurred periodically (frequency more than a month) and are aimed at ensuring production over a long period of time.
In the short term, some resources associated with the technical equipment of the enterprise remain unchanged. The amount of other resources may change. It follows that in the short term, various types of costs can be classified as either fixed or variable. ” Permanent These are costs whose value does not change depending on the volume of production. These include: rental payments, depreciation, salaries to senior management personnel, etc. Variable costs depend on the quantity of products produced and consist of the costs of raw materials, materials, wages to workers, etc. To measure the cost of producing a unit of output, the categories of average, average fixed and average variable costs are used. Average costs equal to the quotient of gross costs divided by the number of products produced. Average fixed costs determined by dividing fixed costs by the number of products produced. Average variable costs are formed by dividing variable costs by the number of products produced.
Total costs is the sum of fixed and variable costs for a given volume of production. At zero output, total costs will be constant. The sum of variable costs varies vertically from the horizontal axis, and the sum of fixed costs is added each time to the vertical dimension of the sum of variable costs to obtain the total cost curve.
When considering a company's costs in the short term, we will proceed from the assumption that the company cannot influence the price of its resources used.
Total costs (TC) are the total costs of a company associated with the production of a given volume of finished products. Total costs are divided into two parts: total fixed costs (TFC) and total time costs (TVC). Total fixed costs do not change as output increases or decreases. Moreover, they occur even when finished products are not produced at all. The presence of TFC is largely explained by the use of fixed factors of production in the short run. Such costs include interest on a loan taken to purchase equipment, depreciation charges, insurance premiums, rent - they must be paid regardless of the volume of finished products. Total variable costs change as output increases: the firm hires more workers, buys more raw materials, etc.
If there were institutions in the world where transaction costs were zero, then the previous economic development wouldn't make any difference. Changes in relative prices or preferences would immediately entail a corresponding restructuring of institutions. However, in a reality where transaction costs are not zero, the process by which modern institutions emerged is very important, because this process limits choice in the future. It is he who determines the divergent directions of development of society, political systems and economics.
Dependence on the previous trajectory of development is a phenomenon that explains why the present acts of choice of agents may depend on acts of choice made earlier (random, insignificant historical events etc.). For analysis within the framework of this concept, the very sequence of historical events and the institutional framework in which previous acts of choice and, accordingly, selection were carried out are important. The further the system develops, in cases where the phenomenon of “path dependence” is observed (and it, of course, does not always exist), the more strongly past acts of choice influence the present.
The first to attract the attention of scientists involved in economic history, to the problem of path dependence, was Paul David, who wrote a short article entitled “Clio and the Economics of QWERTY.” He tried to explain how an unusual standard for the arrangement of keys on a typewriter arose and was fixed, what set of random circumstances gave stability to this standard, contrary to many more convenient solutions. P. David, using the example of a layout, showed that historical and institutional factors can determine the evolutionary market selection of inefficient technologies in situations where more profitable alternatives are available to the market. This idea was later developed in a more rigorous mathematical form by B. Arthur. His works examine factors of non-ergodicity in the development of economic systems, increasing returns from institutions and technologies, and the influence of the blocking effect on the selection of relatively ineffective institutions and technologies. B. Arthur proved the thesis that history becomes important to the extent that the technological development of the economy depends on minor events, which makes it impossible to predict the market with a sufficient degree of confidence. This position shows that the predictability of the economic future may have both theoretical and practical limits.
What is path dependence in relation to the economic institutions of society? When applied to society, this concept means that society and the economy reproduce the social and cultural institutions of the past, gradually introducing changes into them. In the most in simple form This dependence on the development trajectory can be represented as follows. We have an initial set of institutions that creates, for example, negative incentives to production activities. In this institutional environment, organizations and groups are created that benefit within the framework of existing rules. An ideology emerges that not only justifies the existing structure of society, but also explains the poor functioning of the economy. The result will be policies that strengthen existing institutions and organizations, as well as the incentives operating within that system.
The literature identifies several forms of path dependence.
1 Weak form, or dependence on the development path of the first degree. It occurs when one institutional (or technological) outcome would be no worse than an alternative. In the past, society made a choice between two institutions, and this choice became entrenched. The chosen institution functions no worse than the alternative one that was abandoned.
2 Average form, or dependence on the development trajectory of the second degree. It is associated with the ineffectiveness of the chosen path and is determined by the inability of individuals to perfectly foresee the future, therefore decisions that seemed effective ex ante, may not always be effective ex post. If we were making our choice now, we would choose another alternative, since the ineffectiveness of the choice is already obvious. But the investments in connection with the chosen alternative have already been made, and rebuilding the system is ineffective. We may regret past choices, but there is no economic sense in changing.
3 Strong form, or third-degree path dependence, occurs when there are costs associated with the information we have (and our ideology), as well as with public choice and the transaction costs of political markets. Mental constructs set by our movement along a certain trajectory of development prevent us from choosing a new path. Human thinking is characterized by limitations of the imagination, and these limits are determined by experience and habitual thinking, which depend on the culture of which a person is a part. Society cannot effectively talk about a new path because it does not have the appropriate vocabulary, concept, or even belief that another path can even exist. Thus, an additional source of possible ineffectiveness of institutions may be the ideas and ideological attitudes that determine the mental constructs with the help of which people process the information necessary for making decisions. In the third form of path dependence, following the old path leads to a result that is ineffective, but in this case the result can be corrected.
Questions to test knowledge
1 How does North define the concept of “state”?
2 Institutional traps. Hysteresis. Incremental nature of institutional changes.
3 Models of institutional change by D. North, G. Laibkep, J. Knight.
4 Institutional equilibrium and institutional changes.
5 Institutional transformations in a transition economy.
6 Factors ensuring the evolution and transplantation of institutions during market reforms.
Tenyunina I.A.
Postgraduate student of the Department of Pedagogy, Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Ishim State Pedagogical Institute named after. P.P. Ershov"
TRAJECTORY OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENTS AS A PEDAGOGICAL CATEGORY
annotation
The article discusses approaches to defining the category of trajectory of professional development of students during their studies at a university, and provides a number of compelling reasons for clarifying this concept. The very definition of the trajectory of professional development of students is also considered, because it has no generally accepted meaning and is constantly changing under the influence of various scientific approaches. In this article, the trajectory of professional development of students will be understood as the process of self-development, self-education and personality transformation, the construction of the construct of one’s professional “I”, including readiness in the process professional activity successfully adapt to the changing conditions of the professional and pedagogical environment.
Keywords: professional development, trajectory of professional development.
Key words: professional development, trajectory of professional development.
Modern conditions of a rapidly changing society place increasing demands on improving the theoretical and practical training of teachers who are able to productively solve problems related to socialization and adaptation of young people to the modern realities of life in society. At the same time, it is important to provide the future specialist with support in his professional development, for example, by building an individual trajectory of the student’s professional development during the period of professional training at a university at an early stage of professionalization. When laying the foundation for future professional growth, you need to keep in mind that different people reach the stage of adulthood, differing from each other in the level of their health, formed personal properties and, above all, motivational-need sphere and character. And since their vitality is different, and in terms of content, intensity and dynamics of manifestations, their motivational and need areas are not the same, just as the development of general and special abilities, expressed in the degree of success in acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities and operating them, is not the same, they are always more or less degrees differ from each other and as subjects of activity. Thus, the opportunities for further development as individuals, personalities and subjects of knowledge, communication and work will also not coincide. In this regard, the trajectories of personal professional development will be different for all students.
Let us turn to the concept of “trajectory”. S.I. Ozhegov in the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language defined the concept of “trajectory” as “the line of movement of something.” Movement in the development of a person is his formation, the formation of personal qualities, the designation of his present and orientation towards a further goal. Development occurs in activities that modern science considers it as a system included in public relations. According to A.N. Leontiev, human activity does not exist outside of these relationships. The main type of human activity is labor, namely professional activity. Since man is a social being, it is also generally accepted that the development of personality occurs in the process of its socialization and education. Being an object of social influences, he is, first of all, a subject of social development, as well as an active subject of self-development, including self-education. The process of socialization does not stop in adulthood; it continues continuously throughout a person’s life. From a pedagogical point of view, socialization is the process and result of the assimilation and subsequent active production of social experience by an individual. In this process, education has practical and symbolic meaning. The practical significance of education is reflected in specific knowledge, skills and abilities, while the symbolic significance is reflected in the social prestige of education. Socialization cannot occur without the inclusion of the subject in an active activity process, which plays a large role in its development. S.L. Rubinstein noted that a person must always be faced with tasks that are significant to him, in the solution of which he must be involved. Only through active work can a person achieve success in the professional sphere. Professional growth of an individual is carried out through the gradual accumulation of experience in interaction with the surrounding society, assimilation of social forms of consciousness and behavior. Speaking about socialization, we note that this process leaves an imprint on professional development, since in general professional development is the assignment of various aspects of work (professional roles, motivation, knowledge, skills, experience), that is, it is a socialization process that occurs in ontogenesis person, aimed at appropriating various aspects of the world of work. Basic driving force professional development is the individual’s desire for integration into the social context based on identification social groups and institutions. The beginning of active professional development is the individual’s acceptance of professionalization as a life task, its personal and semantic “incorporation” into the overall life plan.
Having considered some aspects of the concept of “personal development” and “professional development”, we decided that internal development personality is accompanied by influence from the outside, which can be defined as the basis for modeling a certain vector, trajectory of development, including professional.
E.F. Zeer determines the movement of an individual in a developing professional space by the following three factors:
– age-related changes that determine the periodization of personality development;
– system of continuous education;
– leading professionally oriented activities.
The mutual influence of these three factors is the professional development of the individual - the movement of the individual in the professional educational space and time of professional life. It covers the period of personal development from the beginning of the formation of professional interests and inclinations to the end of the professional biography. E.F. Zeer notes that “the individual trajectory of a person’s professional development is characterized by a change in the direction of the development vector, caused by a violation of the consistent, linear, ordered process of professional development and the formation of moments of instability (bifurcation points). “Violators” of evolutionary development are psychological barriers: maladaptation, crises, deformations, professionally determined accentuations, social and professional incidents, unfavorable combination of circumstances, accidents. The area limited by these coordinates forms the personal and professional potential of a person.”
The professional space for a student is studying at a university. The establishment of patterns of professional development of the personality of a future specialist is determined, on the one hand, by the content and organization of the educational process, and on the other, by subjective factors. While studying at a university, a student, consciously or not, changes himself. Some qualities arise, develop, and begin to dominate, or weaken and others cease to play their proper role. In this process, it is necessary to find certain methods of educational work so that the professional development of students is not spontaneous, but goes under guidance in line with the trajectory defined for each student. One cannot but agree with the thought of F.I. Peregudov that: “Since every personality is unique, ideally every person has the right to an education system that is friendly to him, advancement along his own educational trajectory, which is not alien to an individual approach, constant psychodiagnostic and career guidance support.” The point of view of T.A. is also of interest. Makarenko, who considers the individual trajectory of a student’s professional development as a path for personal self-development in future professional activities through the creation of a professional environment, the organization of psychological and pedagogical support, and assistance in professional growth, based on the manifestation of individual personality qualities.
Consideration of the above points led us to the formulation of the concept of an individual trajectory of a student’s professional development, which we understand as a process of self-development, self-education and personality transformation, the construction of the construct of one’s professional “I”, including the readiness in the process of professional activity to successfully adapt to the changing conditions of the professional and pedagogical environment . In our study, we proceed from the fact that the professional field university, that is, the appropriately organized educational process becomes an external regulator in relation to each student. The opportunity to become a subject of educational and professional activities occurs in the process of transition from external regulators to internal ones. The effectiveness of this process also depends on external conditions and from the student’s internal subjective positions that develop during the training period. The development of a student’s subjective position includes: the formation of skills of self-knowledge, reflection, empathy, and communication skills; mastering the values and meanings of educational activities, strengthening personal and professional self-realization. Subjectivity is the highest level of student activity and is reflected in the direction and awareness of his activities, in his ability for self-development. All these points, as we see it, should be formed on the basis of individual programs of personal and professional self-development, as well as by strengthening the role of the educational process, psychological and pedagogical support and increasing the importance of students’ personal and professional positions.
Literature
1. Bordovskaya, N.V. Pedagogy: Textbook for universities [Text] / N.V. Bordovskaya, A.A. Rean - St. Petersburg, Peter, 2000. - 298 p.
2. Vedernikova, L.V. Theory and practice of formation and development of research competence of teachers: monograph. [Text] / L.V. Vedernikova, Yu.V. Ryndina. – Ishim: Publishing house IGPI im. P.P. Ershova, 2012. – 128 p.
3. Zeer, E.F. Professional and educational space of the individual: a synergetic approach [Text] / E.F. Zeer // Education and Science – 2003. No. 5. – P. 79 – 90.
4. Leontyev, A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality [Text] / A.N. Leontiev - Moscow: Politizdat, 1975. - 304 p.
5. Makarenko, T.A. Formation of an individual trajectory of professional development of future social educators [Text]: abstract. dis. ... candidate of pedagogical sciences / T.A. Makarenko. – Yakutsk, 2006.
6. Ozhegov, S.I. Dictionary Russian language: 80,000 words and phraseological expressions [Text] // Russian Academy Sci. Institute of Russian Language named after. V.V. Vinogradova. – 4th ed., supplemented / S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. – M.: Azbukovnik, 1999. – 944 p.
7. Peregudov, F.I. Systematic activity and education [Text] / F.I. Peregudov // Quality higher education. – Helsinki, 1990. – 253 p.
8. Rubinstein, S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology [Text] / S.L. Rubinstein. – Moscow: Pedagogy, 1989. – in 2 volumes.
Series
"Working with Gifted Children"
Trajectory individual development
junior school student
"Steps of Growth"
Compiled by:
Malafeeva E.K., Golubeva K.A.
teachers primary classes
INTRODUCTION
Success – It is not simple good result any work. Success is a human state, a qualitative characteristic of activity, a sense of self-confidence, a high positive assessment of oneself. A person gets a feeling of successupon achieving complete physical, mental and social well-being.
What is the secret to the success of a primary school student?
Firstly, success lies in a special educational environment. A student can become successful only in an educational environment that is capable of ensuring respect for his rights and creating comfortable conditions for receiving an education.
Secondly, in health-saving technologies and person-oriented approaches implemented by the teacher, the student receives additional features development of abilities.
Thirdly, the effective implementation of technology for individual student support is a decisive condition for learning, ensuring the favorable development of the personality of a junior schoolchild, and depends on the personality of the teacher and his position in relation to the child.
Fourthly, the success of a primary school student is determined by the level of development of his motivation. The idea of younger schoolchildren about their high abilities is what provides motivation for learning to a much greater extent than the true level of these abilities. It may be high, like your grades, but it does not motivate you to succeed in your studies. The level of intelligence may be low, but if the level of “I can” is high, the student will study with pleasure. His sense of success will be not only formal (according to estimates), but also emotional. These students do well at school because they feel successful.
Trajectory of individual development of a schoolchild
« Steps of growth"
an example of an individual development trajectory for one student with signs of giftedness in mathematics designed for 4 years
The individual development trajectory of a junior schoolchild or an individual educational route is a personal way of realizing the personal potential of a gifted student in the educational process. An individual educational trajectory is effective remedy formation of the emotional-volitional sphere of the child through the development of his reflexive skills.
This route can be drawn up in a notebook, album, separate sheets. It can be taught by the student himself or together with the teacher or parents. Every student can use this trajectory for self-development and self-improvement.
Step 1 – “Who am I”- represents the child’s starting capabilities, his personal characteristics and diagnostics with which they can be identified and identified. Here are the child's drawings, questionnaires and questionnaires.
2nd step - “Test of strength”- reflects the child’s participation in various Olympiads, competitions and is a table in which everything is recorded. During 4 years of study, the student, together with the teacher, fills out a table, showing in color their participation in Olympiads and the result.
Step 3 – “What am I striving for”- records the goals of the child’s activities, his choice at certain stages of education. In color he shows the most significant ones for him in a given period and adds his own.
Step 4 - “My way”- reflects the content of the student’s educational route and is developed together with the teacher. The result of the work is the creation of a project.
5th step - “My project” -reflects the project work plan and its implementation. The teacher advises and helps to draw up a plan for working on the project, and supports during its implementation.
Step 6 - “My achievements”- reflects the level of achievement and is a table in which the student marks his achievements with a sign (+,-,v..). The table of achievements can be compiled for a year, half a year, changes can be made, and additions can be added.
Step 7 - “How I have changed”- awareness of what has been passed and achieved, of one’s efforts expended on the educational route. Represents diagrams on which the student marks the results with a sign (+,-,v...). He can write his successes on free diagrams.
Who am I"
- drawing “My Family”;
- drawing “My class”;
- drawing “My crew”;
- drawing “My friends”;
- drawing “My favorite activity”;
- questionnaire for children of primary school age;
- questionnaire “Cognitive and creative interests of parents”;
- questionnaire “Do you have free time?”;
- questionnaire “Selecting your favorite activities in the lesson.”
Test of strength
I mark participation, success and victory in different colors in the table.
4th grade |
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3rd grade | 4. participation in EMU |
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2nd grade | 1. participation in the school mathematics Olympiad 2. participation in the mathematical game “Kangaroo” 3. participation in the Olympiad “Cognition and Creativity” 4. participation in the Erudite Marathon of Students 5. preparing mental arithmetic for a math lesson | 5. participation in school scientific-practical conference"Behind the Pages of the Textbook" 7.work as a consultant in the classroom 8. Publishing a newspaper for mathematics week at school. |
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1 class | 1. participation in the school mathematics Olympiad 2. participation in the school scientific and practical conference of students primary school"Behind the Pages of School Books" 3. participation in the mathematical game “Kangaroo” 4. preparation class hour"Bird Arithmetic" | 7. work as a consultant in a microgroup | |
1.participation in the school mathematics Olympiad 2. participation in the school scientific and practical conference of primary school students “behind the pages of school books” |
What am I aiming for? Choose from what is offered what you consider important to yourself. Write down your goals. |
really want to |
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Interesting |
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I'll try |
My way
I always have a choice of what to do, and I am in search.
1. Search for books and magazines with non-standard problems in mathematics together with parents, teacher and librarian.
- Creation of a catalog of publications with non-standard tasks.
- Solution logical problems.
- Acquaintance with the biography of outstanding mathematicians.
- Exchange assignments with classmates and students from other schools and cities via the Internet.
- Creation of the project “Mathematical Kaleidoscope”.
My project
I am interested in the problems of the world around me, and I try to solve some of them that I can do. Together with the teacher, I master design - I develop a project, defend it and, if possible, implement it.
Material demonstration form | Deadlines |
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1. Goal setting. 2. Mastering the techniques of working with literature, including popular science publications. 3. Study of newspaper design techniques. 4. Studying the capabilities and interests of classmates (interviews, monitoring, questioning) 5. Presentation of the accumulated material to the class students. 6.Teaching how to solve logical problems for classmates. 7.Analysis, classification and selection of material for the newspaper. 8. Project protection. | Design of an exhibition of books and magazines Multi-level tasks for small groups Using the material to organize mental calculations and classroom hours Consultations, oral journals. Mathematical five-minute exercises Consultation with asset class Newspaper presentation | September During a year Weekly September-December September-December September-December January February |
My achievements
What level do you think you have reached? Mark the table with + , - , v...
I can | On a general level | At an elevated level |
Perform written calculations | ||
Solve typical problems | ||
Solve problems of increased difficulty | ||
Work independently in class | ||
Prepare an oral response to a teacher’s question independently | ||
Find information in reference books or other sources | ||
Make oral or written communications on a topic | ||
Work in a group of students, complete collective tasks | ||
Get your classmates interested in math |
How I've changed
success
An individual development trajectory is a good assistant in raising and teaching children. When creating an individual trajectory with children and working on it, we noticed how it helps in identifying the creative abilities of children, their inclinations, interests, and aspirations. Constantly returning to the intended goals, analyzing his achievements, the student involuntarily engages in self-education, self-improvement, and becomes more independent. Working on a project, preparing material for classmates, feeling their support, the child feels the significance of his work and the desire to do the work even better. Children who created their own development trajectories achieved more significant results in their studies, became more organized, more inquisitive, they participated in Olympiads with pleasure and achieved success in them.
We think that working on individual development trajectories in primary school will help children plan and organize their work in the future, realistically assess their capabilities and prospects, set goals and objectives and find ways to solve and achieve them.
