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27.09.201927.05.2017

“Know thyself and thou shalt know the whole world,” said Socrates. Isn't that what books and psychologists teach us today? Philosophers of Greece came to such conclusions as early as the 7th-6th centuries BC. "Truth is born in a dispute", mathematics, harmony, medicine - the foundation modern sciences was founded by the teachers of many great people of Ancient Greece. Which philosopher did the great Alexander the Great learn from?

Socrates deeply despised luxury. Walking around the bazaar and marveling at the abundance of goods, he would say: “How many things in the world can you do without!”

AT public life this stage is characterized as the highest rise of Athenian democracy in the 3rd-4th-2nd centuries BC. - Hellenistic stage. (The decline of the Greek cities and the establishment of the rule of Macedonia) IV I century BC. - V, VI centuries AD - Roman philosophy. Greek culture VII - V centuries. BC. - this is the culture of a society in which the leading role belongs to slave labor, although free labor was widely used in certain sectors that required high qualifications of producers, such as arts and crafts.

Socrates is one of the founders of dialectics as a method of searching and knowing the truth. The main principle is “Know yourself and you will know the whole world”, that is, the conviction that self-knowledge is the way to comprehend the true good. In ethics, virtue is equal to knowledge, therefore, reason pushes a person to good deeds. A man who knows will not do wrong. Socrates expounded his teaching orally, passing on knowledge in the form of dialogues to his students, from whose writings we learned about Socrates.

Plato was not only a philosopher, but also Olympic champion. Twice he won competitions in pankration - a mixture of boxing and wrestling without rules.

Having created the “Socratic” method of arguing, Socrates argued that truth is born only in a dispute in which the sage, with the help of a series of leading questions, makes his opponents first recognize the incorrectness of their own positions, and then the justice of their opponent’s views. The sage, according to Socrates, comes to the truth by self-knowledge, and then the knowledge of an objectively existing spirit, an objectively existing truth. Of paramount importance in the general political views of Socrates was the idea of professional knowledge, from which it was concluded that a person who is not professionally engaged in political activity has no right to judge it. This was a challenge to the basic principles of Athenian democracy.

Plato's doctrine is the first classical form of objective idealism. Ideas (among them the highest - the idea of good) - the eternal and unchanging prototypes of things, all transient and changeable being. Things are likeness and reflection of ideas. These provisions are set forth in Plato's writings "Feast", "Phaedrus", "State", etc. In Plato's dialogues we find a multifaceted description of beauty. When answering the question: “What is beautiful?” he tried to characterize the very essence of beauty. Ultimately, beauty for Plato is an aesthetically unique idea. A person can know it only when he is in a state of special inspiration. Plato's concept of beauty is idealistic. Rational in his teaching is the idea of the specificity of aesthetic experience.

Alexander the Great later said of his teacher: "I honor Aristotle on a par with my father, because if I owe my life to my father, then Aristotle is what gives her a price."

A student of Plato - Aristotle, was the tutor of Alexander the Great. He is the founder of scientific philosophy, trays, the doctrine of the basic principles of being (possibility and implementation, form and matter, reason and purpose). His main areas of interest are man, ethics, politics, and art. Aristotle is the author of the books "Metaphysics", "Physics", "On the Soul", "Poetics". Unlike Plato, for Aristotle, the beautiful is not an objective idea, but the objective quality of things. Size, proportions, order, symmetry are the properties of beauty.

Beauty, according to Aristotle, lies in the mathematical proportions of things “therefore, to comprehend it, one should study mathematics. Aristotle put forward the principle of proportionality between a person and a beautiful object. Beauty in Aristotle acts as a measure, and the measure of everything is the person himself. In comparison with it, a beautiful object should not be "excessive". In these arguments of Aristotle about the truly beautiful, there is the same humanistic principle that is expressed in ancient art itself. Philosophy responded to the needs of the human orientation of a person who broke with traditional values and turned to reason as a way of understanding problems.

The name Pythagoras means "the one announced by the Pythia". The soothsayer from Delphi not only told her father about the birth of her son, but also said that he would bring so much benefit and good to people that no one else had and would not bring in the future.

In mathematics, the figure of Pythagoras stands out, who created the multiplication table and the theorem that bears his name, who studied the properties of integers and proportions. The Pythagoreans developed the doctrine of the "harmony of the spheres". For them, the world is a slender cosmos. They connect the concept of beauty not only with the general picture of the world, but also, in accordance with the moral and religious orientation of their philosophy, with the concept of good. Developing the issues of musical acoustics, the Pythagoreans posed the problem of the ratio of tones and tried to give its mathematical expression: the ratio of the octave to the fundamental tone is 1:2, fifths - 2:3, fourths - 3:4, etc. From this follows the conclusion that beauty is harmonious.

Where the main opposites are in a "proportionate mixture", there is a blessing, human health. Equal and consistent in harmony does not need. Harmony appears where there is inequality, unity and complementarity of the diverse. Musical harmony is a special case of world harmony, its sound expression. "The whole sky is harmony and number", the planets are surrounded by air and attached to transparent spheres.

The intervals between the spheres strictly harmonically correlate with each other as the intervals of tones of a musical octave. From these ideas of the Pythagoreans came the expression "Music of the Spheres". The planets move by making sounds, and the pitch of the sound depends on the speed of their movement. However, our ear is not able to catch the world harmony of the spheres. These ideas of the Pythagoreans are important as evidence of their belief that the universe is harmonious.

As a remedy for baldness, Hippocrates prescribed pigeon droppings to his patients.

Democritus, who discovered the existence of atoms, also paid attention to the search for an answer to the question: “What is beauty?” He combined the aesthetics of beauty with his ethical views and with the principle of utilitarianism. He believed that a person should strive for bliss and complacency. In his opinion, "one should not strive for any pleasure, but only for that which is associated with the beautiful." In the definition of beauty, Democritus emphasizes such a property as measure, proportionality. To the one who transgresses them, "the most pleasant can become unpleasant."

In Heraclitus, the understanding of beauty is permeated with dialectics. For him, harmony is not a static balance, as for the Pythagoreans, but a moving, dynamic state. Contradiction is the creator of harmony and the condition for the existence of beauty: what is divergent converges, and the most beautiful harmony comes from opposition, and everything happens due to discord. In this unity of struggling opposites, Heraclitus sees an example of harmony and the essence of beauty. For the first time, Heraclitus raised the question of the nature of the perception of beauty: it is incomprehensible with the help of calculation or abstract thinking, it is known intuitively, through contemplation.

Parmenides was born into a noble and rich family. His youth was spent in fun and luxury. When the future philosopher and politician was fed up with pleasures, he began to contemplate "the clear face of truth in the silence of sweet teaching."

Known works of Hippocrates in the field of medicine and ethics. He is the founder of scientific medicine, the author of the doctrine of the integrity of the human body, the theory of an individual approach to the patient, the tradition of keeping a medical history, works on medical ethics, in which Special attention drew on the high moral character of the doctor, the author of the famous professional oath, which is given by everyone who receives a medical diploma. His immortal rule for doctors has survived to this day: do no harm to the patient.

With the medicine of Hippocrates, the transition from religious and mystical ideas about all the processes associated with human health and disease to the rational explanation begun by the Ionian natural philosophers was completed. The medicine of the priests was replaced by the medicine of doctors, based on accurate observations. The doctors of the Hippocratic school were also philosophers.

The central representative of the school under consideration is Parmenides (c. 540 - 470 BC), a student of Xenophanes. Parmenides expounded his views in the work “On Nature”, where his philosophical doctrine is expounded in allegorical form. His work, which has come down to us incompletely, tells of a visit young man a goddess who tells him the truth about the world.

Parmenides sharply distinguishes the true truth comprehended by the mind and opinion, based on sensory knowledge. According to him, the existent is motionless, but it is mistakenly considered as mobile. Parmenides' doctrine of being goes back to the line of materialism in ancient times. Greek philosophy. However, his material existence is motionless and does not develop, it is spherical.

Zeno of Elea participated in a conspiracy against the tyrant Niarchus. During the interrogation, in response to the demand to extradite accomplices, according to some sources, he bit off the ear of the tyrant, according to others, he bit off his own tongue and spat it in the face of Niarhu.

Zeno was a student of Parmenides. His akme (heyday of creativity - 40 years) falls on the period around 460 BC. e. In his writings, he improved the argumentation of the teachings of Parmenides on being and knowledge. He became famous for clarifying the contradictions between reason and feelings. He expressed his views in the form of dialogues. He first proposes the opposite of what he wants to prove, and then proves that the opposite of the opposite is true.

Existing, according to Zeno, has a material character, it is in unity and immobility. He gained fame thanks to attempts to prove the absence of multiplicity and movement in beings. These methods of proof are called epiherm and aporia. Of particular interest are the aporias against movement: "Dichotomy", "Achilles and the Tortoise", "Arrow" and "Stadion".

In these aporias, Zeno sought to prove not that there is no movement in the sensory world, but that it is conceivable and inexpressible. Zeno raised the question of the complexity of the conceptual expression of movement and the need to apply new methods, which later became associated with dialectics.

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Subject: Philosophy of Ancient Greece

Introduction

The philosophy of Ancient Greece occupies a special place in the history of philosophical thought in terms of the diversity of currents, schools and teachings, ideas and creative personalities, the richness of styles and language, and the influence on the subsequent development of the philosophical culture of mankind. Its origin was made possible thanks to the presence of urban democracy and intellectual freedom, the separation of mental from physical labor. In ancient Greek philosophy, distinctly formed two main types philosophical thinking and worldbuilding ( idealism and materialism), the subject field of philosophy was realized, the most important areas of philosophical knowledge were revealed. That was heyday ancient philosophical thought, a stormy surge of intellectual energy of his time.

Greek philosophy began to take shape in the 6th-5th centuries BC. It is customary to single out several important periods in its development. First- this is the formation, or birth, of ancient Greek philosophy. Nature was in the foreground at that time, therefore this period is sometimes called nuturphilosophical, contemplative. It was an early philosophy, where man was not yet distinguished as separate object research. Second period - the heyday of ancient Greek philosophy (V - IV centuries BC). At this time, philosophy began to turn from the theme of nature to the theme of man and society. That was classical philosophy, within which original samples of ancient philosophical culture were formed. Third period(III century BC-IV century AD) - this is the decline and even the decline of ancient Greek philosophy, which was caused by the conquest of Greece by Ancient Rome. Epistemological and ethnic, and eventually religious issues in the form of early Christianity came to the fore here.

1. The formation of the philosophy of ancient Greece

Formation period. The first elements of philosophical thinking appeared already in the works of ancient Greek historians - Homer, Herodotus, Hesioid and Thucydides. They raised and comprehended questions about the origin of the world and its development, about man and his fate, the development of society in time.

The very first philosophical school of ancient Greece is considered to be Miletskout. In which the name of the sage most often sounded Thales who is generally recognized as the first ancient Greek philosopher. In the first place was the question of finding harmony in this world. It was nuturphilosophy or philosophy of nature.

Thales proceeded from the assumption that everything that exists in the world arose from water.`Everything from water and everything into water`, this was the basis of the thesis of the philosopher. Water in the philosophical concept of Thales is, as it were, fundamental principle. Thales was also known as a geographer, astronomer, and mathematician.

Among the gentle philosophers was also Anaximander, student and follower of Thales, author of philosophical prose. He raised and resolved questions about the foundation of the world. Apeiron appeared as something infinite and eternal. He does not know old age, is immortal and indestructible, always active and in motion. Apeiron distinguishes from itself opposites - wet and dry, cold and warm. Their combinations result in earth (dry and cold), water (wet and cold), air (wet and hot) and fire (dry and hot). He believed that life originated on the border of sea and land from silt under the influence of heavenly fire .

A follower of Anaximander was the third famous representative Milesian school - Anaximenes, philosopher, astronomer and metrologist. He considered the beginning of all things air. When rarefied, the air first becomes fire and then ether, and when it condenses, it becomes wind, clouds and water, earth and stone. According to Anaximenes, the human soul also consists of air.

Within the framework of early Greek philosophy, a prominent role was played by the school associated with the name Heraclitus from Ephesus. He connected everything that exists with fire, which was regarded as the most changeable of all the elements of the world - water, earth and others. The world was, is and always will be a living fire. For Greek philosopher fire is not only a source, but also a symbol dynamism and the incompleteness of everything. Fire is a reasonable moral force.

The human soul is also fiery, the dry (fiery) soul is the wisest and best. Heraclitus also put forward the idea Logos. In his understanding, logos is a kind of objective and indestructible law of the universe. To be wise means to live according to the Logos.

Heraclitus laid out the basics in the simplest form dialectics as the doctrine of the development of all things. He believed that everything in this world is interconnected, and this makes the world harmonious. Secondly, everything in the universe is contradictory. The collision and struggle of these principles is the main law of the universe. Thirdly, everything is changeable, even the sun shines in a new way every day. The world it is a river that cannot be entered twice. The Logos reveals its secrets only to those who know how to reflect on it.

Pythagoras founded his own philosophical school. He raised the question of the numerical structure of the universe. Pythagoras taught that the basis of the world is the number: `Number owns things`. The Pythagoreans assigned a special role to one, two, three and four. The sum of these numbers gives the number `ten`, which philosophers considered ideal.

At school Eleatics (Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno) attention was drawn to the problem of being and its movement. Parmenides argued that being `still lies within the fetters of the greatest`. For Parmenides, being is not a vice, but is frozen ice, something complete.

The idea of the immobility of the world was also expressed by Xenophanes. In his opinion, God resides in the Cosmos surrounding man. The God-cosmos is one, eternal and unchanging.

Zeno of Elea defended the thesis of the unity and immutability of all things. In their aporias he tried to justify the lack of movement.

Early Greek philosophy was also represented by the work Empledocles and Anaxagoras. The first of them put forward the position of the four styles of all things - fire, air, earth and water. driving forces the world he thought Love and enmity that connect or separate these elements. The world is uncreatable and indestructible, all things are constantly changing places. Anaxagoras considered certain things to be the basis of all things. homemeria that determine the unity and diversity of the world. The world is driven by someone nous- mind as a source of unity harmony.

Creativity occupied a significant place in early Greek philosophy. atomists (Leucippus, Democritus).

Democritus believed that single things are perishable and disintegrate. The man himself, according to Democritus, occurred naturally, without the participation of the Creator.

Democritus was, according to K. Marx, the first encyclopedic mind among the Greeks. It is not without reason that he is considered to be the ancestor of materialism in the history of philosophy. Philosophy more and more took on the characteristics of a system rational knowledge, supplemented wisdom as an understanding of the life experience of people.

2. The heyday of ancient Greek philosophy

Bloom period. The heyday of ancient Greek philosophy was associated with its turn from the natural world to the world to the theme of man and society. This reorientation could only take place in a democracy where free citizens recognized themselves as sovereign individuals. The transition from nuturphilosophy to anthropology and social philosophy became possible due to the socio-economic and spiritual prerequisites in society. This period is usually associated with school sophists, the first ancient Greek teachers of wisdom ( Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon and etc.). They made a great contribution to the development of rhetoric, eristics and logic. Protagoras was a teacher of rhetoric and eristics. He taught that matter is the basis of the world, which is in a changeable state. Protagoras believed that there is nothing stable, including in human knowledge. Therefore, about any thing, two opposite opinions are possible, both claiming to be true. Doesn't it happen that the same wind blows, and someone freezes at the same time, someone does not? And someone not too much, but someone strongly ?. Pythagoras formulated his famous thesis:` Man is the measure of all things`.

Protagoras was also known for his atheistic views. For these judgments, Protagoras was accused of godlessness and fled from Athens.

Unlike Protagoras, Gorgias believed that in knowledge everything is false. He taught that nothing exists, and if it exists, it is incomprehensible. According to this philosopher, it is impossible to prove that being and non-being exist simultaneously. Gorgias touched upon the complex logical problems associated with the knowledge of the world by man. According to Gorgias, speech is able to drive away fear and mourn, to cause positive mental states of people.

Antiphon in the knowledge of man went further than other sophists. He believed that a person should take care of himself first of all, although not forgetting the laws of the outside world. `... The prescriptions of laws are arbitrary, but the dictates of nature are necessary`, the philosopher emphasized. Antiphon set his slaves free, and he himself entered into marriage with his former slave, for which he was declared insane and deprived of civil rights.

Sophists were engaged in logic and mathematics, astronomy, music and poetry. However, they were criticized for relativism and verbal contrivances.

Socrates believed that the main task of his philosophy was to help a person in his knowing oneself. Socrates' method of human research can be called subjective dialectic. The logical art was useful to him in his life, because for independent and atheistic views he was accused of corrupting the youth and appeared before the court, where he needed eloquence for his own defense. Socrates believed that with all the diversity of opinions, the truth is still the only and it is comprehended with the help of reflections.

According to Socrates, to know is to have concept about anything. Self-knowledge is a requirement of the mind, because without it it is impossible self-determination person in this world. With the help of knowledge you can gain restraint, courage, justice. Without the presence of these virtues, it is impossible for a person to fulfill his social and state functions. Socrates considered the main guarantee of achieving true knowledge to be the presence in a person conscience as some ` inner voice`.

Good begins with the idea and knowledge of it. Only knowledge of the essence of courage makes a person courageous. Evil is always the result of ignorance of good.

He highly appreciated the role of agricultural labor in the history of mankind, which, in his opinion, does not destroy people and does not destroy the communal system of life.

The creativity of Socrates lies in the fact that he actively contributed to the transfer of attention of philosophy from the theme of nature to the theme of man. Socrates is rightfully considered one of the "great three" of ancient Greek philosophers, along with Plato and Aristotle. The Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev noted that Greek philosophy laid the foundation for European humanism.

After Socrates, there was a school in ancient Greece cynics(Antisthenes, Diogenes). Its representatives considered the basis of human happiness to be the rejection of sensual pleasures, wealth and fame, and the goal of life was to achieve independence. The most notable figure was Diogenes of Sinop. Diogenes, by his personal example (according to legend, he lived in a barrel and walked in rags) demonstrated ascetic Lifestyle. For him, his own way of life was philosophy in action which carried a protest against lies and hypocrisy.

Personality occupies a special place in ancient Greek philosophy. Plato founder of the Academy. He is considered the ancestor objective idealism, whose supporters consider the existence of a certain spiritual principle to be real, which gave rise to this material world from itself.

“Initially, there is a soul, and not fire and not air ... the soul is primary,” the thinker believed. The world in which people exist, according to Plato, is just a pale shadow from a certain world of ideas. Only the world of ideas is something immutable, motionless. This is - authentic world, "peace of the eternal". What does he represent?

World of ideas- this is a kind of "heavenly region" that the entity occupies. This world is out of space, it is eternal. An idea is, as it were, a prototype of material things, and things are just an imprint of ideas. For example, the idea of a house corresponds to a real house, the idea of a person corresponds to a real living being. All these items are compound ideas from passive "matter" as a kind of " building material". Here is an idea demirug(creator) of material things.

The world of ideas has its own hierarchy, a kind of pyramid. Supreme among all is the idea of good, in contrast to the idea of evil. Good source of truth. It is the highest virtue. But matter also plays an important role. The world cannot do without it. Developing the original thesis, Plato came to the conclusion about the existence of a certain world soul, the source of all life.

Plato emphasized that the sense organs give us information only about the untrue world. Knowledge is true and reliable reasonable. It is nothing but memory the human soul about the ideas that it met before entering the body. The highest part of the soul is the mind. Souls are immortal, and the human body is their temporary home.

In history, Plato is well known for his socio-political teachings. According to him, there should be three social groups in the state. The first is the wise rulers-philosophers. The second is formed by courageous wars. And the third is farmers and artisans. In his opinion, such a state will be strong, since everyone in it will do his own thing.

Plato had a negative attitude towards democracy. He believed that it represents freedom in its "undiluted form." According to the thinker, the ideal type of state is an aristocratic republic. The able will rule there.

He was the progenitor philosophical idealism. In the works of Plato, ancient Greek idealism appears as outlook, on the basis of which a "single stream of idealism" is subsequently formed.

The pinnacle in the development of ancient Greek philosophy was creativity Aristotle, student and critic of Plato. This very gifted thinker proved himself in logic and aesthetics, in political theory and natural science. Aristotle is "the most versatile head of all the ancient Greeks."

"Being exists, but there is no non-being" - this is the basic law of the thinker. He considered the basis of life first matter. The intermediate step between matter and things are: fire, air, water and earth. According to Aristotle. the real world is a unity of matter and form. The form of all forms is God as a kind of "prime mover". Aristotle criticized his teacher Plato for dividing existence into two realities - the world of ideas and the world of things. Thus, the objects were deprived of their internal source, being lifeless.

Criticizing Plato, Aristotle tried to combine the material and the spiritual. Aristotle Unlike Plato, he restored the rights of things, as it were. According to Aristotle, the development of the world is a chain of transformations of possibility into reality.

The Greek philosopher singled out such categories as "essence", "quantity" and "quality", "time", "place" and others. Aristotle is considered to be the founder logic- sciences about ways, forms, and laws of thinking. Logic is a tool for seeking knowledge about the world.

He tried to explore economic relations in the society of that time. He was a supporter of private property. From animals, man differs primarily in that he has a mind, the ability to think and cognize. Along with this, a person has speech, science and will, which makes him able to know, communicate and make choices. Aristotle advocated the thesis of naturalness slavery. In his view, slaves are barbarians, differing from masters in their adaptability to physical labor.

Forms state structure, Aristotle divided into "wrong" and "correct". He believed that the condition for the existence of the state citizen as a full participant in all state affairs.

Aristotle is also known as the founder biology. He owns the definition of life: "... every nutrition, growth and decline of the body, having its foundation in itself." Planet Earth Aristotle considered the center of the universe, and the final and eternal source of all forms of life and movement on it - God.

The multifaceted work of Aristotle completes the classical period in ancient Greek philosophy. The era has come Hellenism associated with the conquest of Greece, the gradual crisis of the foundations of the slave society.

sunset period ancient Greek philosophy coincided with the decline of free political and spiritual life in the cities. Interest in philosophizing has declined significantly. Early Christianity emerged. The most important philosophical currents at that time were epicureanism, stoicism and skepticism.

Eipkur is the largest figure in the philosophy of the Greco-Roman period. He contradicted Democritus in everything.

In his doctrine of nature, Epicurus believed that nothing arises from nothing and does not turn into nothing. The world has always been the way it is now.

The difference between the philosophy of Epicurus and Democritus is that the first introduced the principle deviations atoms as they move through the void. In Democritus, everything is initially rigidly set and does not imply its change. It is not surprising that this philosopher became one of the most revered for the German thinker and revolutionary Karl Marx, who sincerely dreamed of liberating all of humanity from the state of unfreedom.

According to him, it is impossible for the fear of impending death to drown out the craving for well-being in a person. Pleasure is the beginning and end happy life. Epicurus was a supporter hedonism , and in this regard, his work can be defined as a "philosophy of happiness." The philosopher has always emphasized that one cannot live happily without living reasonable, moral and fair.

Stoicism("philosophy of salvation") expressed feelings of the world's insecurity and uncertainty. The ideal for the Stoics was a man who obeys fate and the will of the gods.

Everything in this world is governed by necessity and law. Having a beginning in time, the world must have its end.

The main thing in human behavior should be peace, equanimity and patience. In the view of the Stoics, a sage is one who does not desire happiness and does not show any active energy. Obviously, Stoicism is the exact opposite of Epicureanism. If the latter is characterized by installation on optimism and activism then the Stoics are supporters pessimism and apathy.

Skepticism (Pyrrho etc.) as a course of the Hellenistic era rejected the possibility of a person obtaining reliable knowledge about the world around him. Therefore, one should not call things either beautiful or ugly, one should not evaluate people's actions as fair or not fair.

By the 1st century BC. appeared electicism- a mechanical combination of heterogeneous teachings and ideas based on various systems of classical and Hellenistic philosophy. Mythological, religious and mystical motifs sounded in philosophy, reflecting the great social catastrophe.

Conclusion

Ancient Greek philosophy has become one of the brightest pages in the history of world philosophical thought in terms of its ideological content, diversity of schools, types of thinking and ideas. Here the philosophy really stands on its own. In fact, Greek philosophy was a worldview liberating personality, which distinguished itself from the Cosmos and realized its independence and value. Russian researcher of culture A.F. Losev noted that ancient philosophy is "an integral face, ... a single, living and integral historical structure."

Bibliography

1. Chanyshev A.N. Course of lectures on ancient philosophy. M.: Higher school. 1981

2. History of philosophy. Edited by G.F. Alexandrova, B.E. Bykhovsky, M.B. Mitina, P.F. Yudin. M.: Infra-M, 1999

3. Philosophy of ancient and feudal society. Textbook. M.: Avanta, 1998

4. Sokolov V.V. History of ancient and medieval foreign philosophy

5. Anthology of world philosophy. M. 1997

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Ancient (from Latin antiquitas - antiquity, antiquity) philosophy of the ancient Greeks and Romans originated at the end of the 7th century. BC. and lasted until the beginning of the VI century. AD, when Emperor Justian in 529 closed the last Greek philosophical school - the Platonic Academy. Traditionally, Thales is considered the first ancient philosopher, and Boethius the last. Ancient philosophy was formed under the influence and influence of the pre-philosophical Greek tradition, which can be conditionally considered as an early stage of ancient philosophy itself, as well as the views of the sages of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and ancient Eastern countries. Ancient Greek philosophy (teachings, schools) was created by Greek philosophers who lived on the territory of modern Greece, as well as in Greek policies (trade and craft city-states) of Asia Minor, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and Crimea, in the Hellenistic states of Asia and Africa, in the Roman Empire . Ancient philosophy arose in the first half of the VI BC. e. in the Asia Minor part of the then Hellas - in Ionia, in the city of Miletus. Ancient philosophy is a single and unique, but not an isolated phenomenon in the development of the philosophical consciousness of mankind. It developed on the basis of the rudiments of astronomical, mathematical, and other knowledge transferred from the East to the Greek cities, as a result of processing ancient mythology in art and poetry, as well as the liberation of philosophical thought from the captivity of mythological ideas about the world and man. (Often philosophy ancient rome either directly identified with ancient Greek, or united with it under common name"ancient philosophy").

Ancient philosophy lived for about 1200 years and in its development has four main stages or periods:

I. VII-V centuries. BC. - pre-Socratic period (Heraclitus, Democritus, etc.),

II. 2nd floor V - the end of the IV centuries. BC. -- classical period (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, etc.);

III. End of IV-II centuries. BC. - Hellenistic period (Epicurus and others),

IV. 1st century BC. -- 6th century AD - Roman philosophy.

I. The activities of the so-called "pre-Socratic" philosophers belong to the pre-Socratic period:
1. Milesian school - "physicists" (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes);
2. Heraclitus of Ephesus;
3. Eleatic school;
4. atomists (Democritus, Leucippe).

Presocratics is a conventional concept introduced in the 20th century. It covers the philosophers and philosophical schools that preceded Socrates. These include philosophers of the Ionian school, Pythagoreans, Eleatics, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, atomists and sophists.
The Ionian (or Milesian, according to the place of origin) school is the oldest school of natural philosophy. It was founded by Thales and included Anaximander, Anaximenes and Heraclitus.
The main issue of the school was the definition of the beginning from which the world arose. Each of the philosophers defined one of the elements as this beginning. Heraclitus said that everything is born from fire by rarefaction and condensation, and burns out after certain periods. Fire symbolizes the struggle of opposites in space and its constant movement. Heraclitus also introduced the concept of the Logos (Word) - the principle of reasonable unity, which orders the world from opposite principles. The Logos governs the world, and the world can only be known through it. Anaxagoras, a student of Anaximenes, introduced the concept of Nus (Mind), organizing the cosmos from a mixture of disorderly elements. The main problems dealt with by the "pre-Socratics" were: the explanation of the phenomena of nature, the essence of the Cosmos, the surrounding world, the search for the origin of everything that exists. The method of philosophizing is the declaration of one's own views, turning them into dogma.

II. The classical (Socratic) period - the heyday of ancient Greek philosophy (which coincided with the heyday of the ancient Greek polis.
This stage includes:
1. philosophical and educational activities of the sophists;
2. philosophy of Socrates;
3. the emergence of "Socratic" schools;
4. philosophy of Plato;
5. philosophy of Aristotle.

The philosophers of the Socratic (classical) period also tried to explain the essence of nature and the Cosmos, but they did it deeper than the “pre-Socratics”:

1. Plato - the author of the doctrine of "pure ideas" that precede the real world and the embodiment of which was the real world;
2. showed interest in the problem of a person, society, states;
3. conducted practical philosophical and educational activities (sophists and Socrates).

The historical significance of Aristotle's philosophy is that he:
1. made significant adjustments to a number of provisions of Plato's philosophy, criticizing the doctrine of "pure ideas";
2. gave a materialistic interpretation of the origin of the world and man;
3. identified 10 philosophical categories;
4. gave a definition of being through categories;
5. determined the essence of matter;
6. singled out six types of state and gave the concept of an ideal type - polity;
7. made a significant contribution to the development of logic (gave the concept of deductive
method - from the particular to the general, substantiated the system of syllogisms - the conclusion from two or more premises of the conclusion).

III. For the Hellenistic period (the period of the crisis of the policy and the formation of large states in Asia and Africa under the rule of the Greeks and led by the associates of Alexander the Great and their descendants), it is characteristic:
1. the spread of the anti-social philosophy of the Cynics;
2. the emergence of the Stoic direction of philosophy;
3. the activity of "Socratic" philosophical schools: Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, the Cyrenian school (Cyrenaicists), etc.;
4. the philosophy of Epicurus, etc.

Distinctive features of Hellenistic philosophy:
1. the crisis of ancient moral and philosophical values;
2. reduction of fear of the gods and other supernatural forces of respect for them;
3. denial of former authorities, disregard for the state and its institutions;
4. search for physical and spiritual support in oneself; the desire to renounce reality; the predominance of a materialistic view of the world (Epicurus); recognition as the highest good - the happiness and pleasure of an individual person (physical - Cyrenaic, moral - Epicurus).

Thus, Stoicism, Cynicism, Epicureanism - the philosophical schools of the Hellenistic period (4th century BC - beginning of the 1st century) - arose during the crisis of ancient democracy and polis values. The predominance of moral and ethical issues in the works of the Cynics, Epicurus, the Roman Stoics Seneca and Marcus Aurelius testifies to the search for new goals and regulators of human life in this historical period.

IV. The most famous philosophers of the Roman period were:
1. Seneca;
2. Marcus Aurelius (Emperor of Rome in 161 - 180);
3. Titus Lucretius Car;
4. late Stoics;
5. early Christians.

The philosophy of the Roman period was characterized by:
1. mutual influence of ancient Greek and ancient Roman philosophies (ancient Greek philosophy developed within the framework of Roman statehood and was influenced by it, while ancient Roman philosophy grew on the ideas and traditions of ancient Greek);
2. the actual merging of ancient Greek and ancient Roman philosophies into one - ancient philosophy;
3. increased attention to the problems of man, society and the state;
4. the flowering of aesthetics (philosophy, the subject of which was the thoughts and behavior of a person);
5. the flourishing of stoic philosophy, whose supporters saw the highest good and the meaning of life in the maximum spiritual development of the individual, learning, withdrawal into oneself, serenity (ataraxia, that is, equanimity);
6. the predominance of idealism over materialism;
7. more and more frequent explanation of the phenomena of the surrounding world by the will of the gods;
8. increased attention to the problem of death and the afterlife;
9. the growth of influence on the philosophy of the ideas of Christianity and early Christian heresies;
10. gradual merging of ancient and Christian philosophies, their transformation into medieval theological philosophy.

It should be noted that the Stoic school, founded by Zeno at the end of the 4th century. BC, existed during the Roman Empire. The main idea of Stoicism is obedience to fate and the fatality of all things. Zeno said this about the Stoic: "To live consistently, i.e. in accordance with a single and harmonious rule of life, for those who live inconsistently are unhappy." The philosophy of skepticism also received its continuation - it is the philosophy of peace, serenity of the soul, refraining from any judgments. A skeptic, speaking about things and events, does not evaluate them, he simply reproduces the facts.

CONCLUSIONS: temporary problems and peculiarities in general.

In fact, the concept of "philosophy" in the periods under review was synonymous with emerging science and theoretical thought in general, aggregate, not divided for the time being into special sections of knowledge, both concrete and generalized. By changing the main problems, the following periods can be distinguished:

1. Natur-philosophical (the main problem is the problem of the structure of the world, the problem of the beginning). Neighborhood-rivalry of several schools;
2. Humanistic (change of problems from nature to man and society). Sophist School, Socrates;
3. Classical (period of great synthesis). The creation of the first philosophical systems is the whole range of philosophical problems. Plato, Aristotle;
4. Hellenistic (the center moves from Greece to Rome). Compete different philosophical schools. The problem of happiness. Schools of Epicurus, skeptics, Stoics;
5. Religious (development of Neoplatonism). The problem of religion is added to the sphere of philosophical problems;
6. The birth of Christian thought, monotheistic religion.

In general, ancient Greek (ancient) philosophy has the following features:
1. The core idea of ancient Greek philosophy was cosmocentrism (fear and worship of the Cosmos, showing interest primarily in the problems of the origin of the material world, explaining the phenomena of the surrounding world);
2. at the later stages - a mixture of cosmocentrism and anthropocentrism (which was based on human problems);
3. two directions in philosophy were laid - idealistic ("Plato's line") and materialistic ("Democritus' line"), and these directions alternately dominated: in the pre-Socratic period - materialistic, in the classical - had the same influence, in the Hellenistic - materialistic, in Roman - idealistic.

Thus, ancient philosophy arose and developed during the birth and formation of a slave-owning society, when it was divided into classes and isolated social group people doing only mental work. This philosophy owes its appearance to the development of natural science, especially mathematics and astronomy. True, at that distant time, natural science had not yet emerged as an independent field of human knowledge. All knowledge about the world and man was united in philosophy. It is no coincidence that the most ancient philosophy is also called the science of sciences.

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Subject: Philosophy of Ancient Greece

Vladivostok

Introduction. 3

1. The formation of the philosophy of ancient Greece. 4

2. The heyday of ancient Greek philosophy. 7

Conclusion. fourteen

References.. 15

Introduction

Greek philosophy began to take shape in the 6th-5th centuries BC. It is customary to single out several important periods in its development. First- this is the formation, or birth, of ancient Greek philosophy. Nature was in the foreground at that time, therefore this period is sometimes called nuturphilosophical, contemplative. It was an early philosophy, where man was not yet singled out as a separate object of study. Second period - the heyday of ancient Greek philosophy (V - IV centuries BC). At this time, philosophy began to turn from the theme of nature to the theme of man and society. That was classical philosophy, within which original samples of ancient philosophical culture were formed. Third period(III century BC-IV century AD) - this is the decline and even the decline of ancient Greek philosophy, which was caused by the conquest of Greece by Ancient Rome. Epistemological and ethnic, and eventually religious issues in the form of early Christianity came to the fore here.

1. The formation of the philosophy of ancient Greece

A follower of Anaximander was the third known representative of the Milesian school - Anaximenes, philosopher, astronomer and metrologist. He considered the beginning of all things air. When rarefied, the air first becomes fire and then ether, and when it condenses, it becomes wind, clouds and water, earth and stone. According to Anaximenes, the human soul also consists of air.

Within the framework of early Greek philosophy, a prominent role was played by the school associated with the name Heraclitus from Ephesus. He connected everything that exists with fire, which was regarded as the most changeable of all the elements of the world - water, earth and others. The world was, is and always will be a living fire. For the Greek philosopher, fire is not only a source, but also a symbol dynamism and the incompleteness of everything. Fire is a reasonable moral force.

Heraclitus laid out the basics in the simplest form dialectics as the doctrine of the development of all things. He believed that everything in this world is interconnected, and this makes the world harmonious. Secondly, everything in the universe is contradictory. The collision and struggle of these principles is the main law of the universe. Thirdly, everything is changeable, even the sun shines in a new way every day. The surrounding world is a river that cannot be entered twice. The Logos reveals its secrets only to those who know how to reflect on it.

The idea of the immobility of the world was also expressed by Xenophanes. In his opinion, God resides in the Cosmos surrounding man. The God-cosmos is one, eternal and unchanging.

Zeno of Elea defended the thesis of the unity and immutability of all things. In their aporias he tried to justify the lack of movement.

Early Greek philosophy was also represented by the work Empledocles and Anaxagoras. The first of them put forward the position of the four styles of all things - fire, air, earth and water. He considered the driving forces of the world Love and enmity that connect or separate these elements. The world is uncreatable and indestructible, all things are constantly changing places. Anaxagoras considered certain things to be the basis of all things. homemeria that determine the unity and diversity of the world. The world is driven by someone nous- mind as a source of unity harmony.

Creativity occupied a significant place in early Greek philosophy. atomists (Leucippus, Democritus).

Democritus believed that single things are perishable and disintegrate. The man himself, according to Democritus, occurred naturally, without the participation of the Creator.

2. The heyday of ancient Greek philosophy

Protagoras was also known for his atheistic views. For these judgments, Protagoras was accused of godlessness and fled from Athens.

Sophists were engaged in logic and mathematics, astronomy, music and poetry. However, they were criticized for relativism and verbal contrivances.

ancient greek philosophy

The history of philosophy as a science explores the process of the formation of philosophical knowledge, the patterns and phases of this development, the struggle of philosophical schools and trends.

ancient philosophy- This is the philosophy of the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans, covering the period from the 7th century. BC. Ancient philosophy made an exceptional contribution to the development of world civilization. It was here that European culture and civilization originated.

Philosophical schools of the pre-Socratic period

Milesian (Ionian)) philosophical school - the oldest materialistic school in Greece. Miletus at that time (6th century BC) was major center trade, navigation, culture, which led to the emergence of such thinkers as Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander. They own discoveries in the field of mathematics, geography, astronomy. They considered something material, bodily, special - water, air, etc. to be the beginning underlying the infinite variety of phenomena. the philosophers of the Milesian school were spontaneous materialists and also spontaneous dialecticians.

Thales- (c. 624 - 547 BC) - the first historically reliable representative of ancient Greek philosophy. In ancient tradition - one of the "seven wise men." According to legend, Thales mastered mathematical and astronomical knowledge in Egypt and Babylon. He is credited with predicting the solar eclipse of 585-585 BC. Thales is the founder of the spontaneous materialistic Milesian school. He was looking for a single principle in the diversity of things, considering it as a bodily, sensually given substance. According to his teachings, the fundamental principle of all things is water.

Anaximander- a student of Thales, the author of the first philosophical work in Greece "On Nature". The beginning of all things considered "apeiron". His merit is that he was one of the first to create a cosmological theory that the Earth is in the center of the Universe, having the shape of a flat cylinder, while 3 celestial rings revolve around the Earth: solar, lunar and stellar. Anaximander for the first time in history expressed the idea of evolution: man, like other living beings, descended from fish.

Anaximenes- the student of Anaximander believed that everything that exists comes from the first matter - air - and returns back to it. Air is infinite, eternal, mobile. Thickening, it forms first clouds, then water, and finally, earth and stones, rarefied - it turns into fire. Here you can see the idea of the transition of quantity into quality. Air encompasses everything. He is both the soul and the general environment for the countless worlds of the universe. Anaximenes taught that the stars are fire, but we do not feel heat, because. they are far away. Anaximenes gave a close to true explanation of the eclipse of the Sun and Moon.

Made a qualitatively new step in philosophy Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 544 - c. 483 BC). The beginning of Heraclitus is an ever-existing fire that either flares up or goes out, and thus ensures the continuity of birth and disappearance in the natural world. Everything changes and changes constantly. Here is the statement of Heraclitus that has come down to us: “Everything flows, everything changes.” "The sun is new every day", "You cannot enter the same river twice." The unity has its opposites - this is the basis of the existence and harmony of the world. Heraclitus - founder of elemental dialectics.

An alternative to the teachings of Heraclitus arose on the opposite outskirts of the Hellenic world - in Italy. PythagoreansThey say that everything is always repeated. The idea of measure and order is closely connected with the image of Pythagoras: some ancient authors even attributed to him the introduction of measures and weights. The Pythagoreans associated the structure of the universe with the existence of such a phenomenon, like a number. It is the numbers that express the exact ratios of magnitudes that do not depend on any arbitrariness. "Number owns things" - they taught. To study, to understand this or that phenomenon means to measure it. This rule, the followers of Pythagoras, extended not only to natural phenomena but also on the realm of morality, on the norms of human behavior. Justice in Pythagoreanism was defined as "a number multiplied by itself."

eleian school. For the Eleatics, substance is the being of everything. Organized this school Xenophanes. He first expressed the idea that the Gods are the creation of man. The god of Xenophanes is not like people either in body or in thought. God of Xenophanes - pure mind - it is not physical, it has no bodily strength, its strength is in wisdom.The most prominent representative of the Eleatics was ParmenidesHe lived in Elea, worked out laws. The main work is a philosophical poem about nature. He taught about the immutability of being. The focus is on the question of the relationship between being and non-being and the question of the definition of being and thinking. The world for him is a single, eternally existing being. He is changeless, constant, always the same.

Disciple of Parmenides Zeno I thought that every concept of motion is contradictory, and therefore not true.He created a range aporia, evidence directed against the recognition of the truth of the movement."A moving (object) does not move either in the place where it is, or in the place where it is not." Zeno put forward the aporia "The flying arrow is at rest", according to which the path of movement consists of the sum of points at rest, and at each point of movement the arrow is at rest. After that, Zeno suggests thinking about how motion can arise from a series of states of rest. He tries to lead to the conclusion about the negation of movement in general. The same purpose is served by such aporias of his as "Dichotomy", "Achilles and the tortoise".

The birth and development of atomistic ideas is associated primarily with the names Leucippe and Democritus. Democritus wrote about 70 compositions. Being is something simple, indivisible - an atom - Greek. "not dissected". Materialistic interpretation: an atom is an indivisible physical particle and there are an infinite number of such atoms. Atoms are separated by emptiness. Emptiness is non-existence and therefore unknowable. Democritus distinguishes the world of atoms as true, therefore, we know only by reason and the world of sensible things - everything is visible. Atoms are invisible, they are only conceivable, they differ in shape and size. Moving in the void, they interlock with each other, because their shape is different. Atoms form bodies that are accessible to perception. Democritus declares the atom as the fundamental principle of the world - a material indivisible particle, the cause and essence of everything that exists. Thanks to the atomistic concept, it was possible to explain why, despite the birth and death of individual bodies, the world as a whole continues to exist, will be preserved.

Empedocles(490 - 430) - doctor, philosopher, politician, head of a democratic policy. He believed that the diversity in the world comes from a different combination of elements. The complex consists of the simple and all elements are divisible. Talk about attraction and repulsion. Love, enmity - this characterizes the cosmos, human relations.

Socrates and the Socratic Schools (Athens 470-399 BC)

Socrates (470-399 BC) - an outstanding Athenian philosopher, teacher of Plato. Socrates is a representative of a realistic religious and moral worldview. In his youth, during the war between Sparta and Athens, Socrates fought valiantly, and in peacetime conscientiously performed civic duties. He devoted most of his time to conversations with his students, from whom, unlike the sophists, he did not take money.

At the age of 70, he was accused of impiety and corrupting youth - for "inventing new gods, overthrowing the old ones." The court sentenced him to death. An unjust condemnation did not become the basis for the possibility of escape presented, Socrates did not allow himself to go against the law. He died after drinking a cup of poison.

Central problemin philosophy Socrates - man and human consciousness . The main task of knowledge - self-knowledge: "Know yourself".Cognition is the main goal and ability of a person, because in the process of cognition he comes to universally valid truths, to the knowledge of goodness and beauty, goodness and happiness. This is the purpose of philosophy.

Ethics of Socratesequates virtue with knowledge.

Dialectic of Socratesmatches the dialogue (dia-logos), which consists of two moments: "refutations" ("irony") and "maieutics". The "Socratic" method is a method of consistently and systematically asked questions, with the goal of bringing the interlocutor to a contradiction with himself, to the recognition of his own ignorance. This is the essence of "irony", the essence of "maieutics" - through leading questions and logical techniques, bring the interlocutor to an independent finding of the truth. "Irony" and "maieutics" - in form, "induction" and "definition" - in content.

Specificity - concepts are analyzed, i.e. how a person comprehends what a person is. Philosophers are engaged in the fact that through concepts they cognize the cosmos. In concepts, according to Socrates, not private, but general and universal knowledge is manifested. The universal in itself does not exist as such, but it does exist. Socrates discovered the characteristics of concepts, that is, the beautiful is not adequate to a beautiful girl, nature, etc., but it exists as such.

According to Socrates, knowledge is thought, the concept of the general. The definition of the concept is preceded by a conversation, during which the search for truth takes place. Socrates compared his methods of research with "the art of the midwife." This approach is called maieutics, which literally translated from Greek meant midwifery. Socrates believed that by helping the birth of truth in other people, he continues in the moral field the work of his mother, the midwife Fenareta.

Socrates expressed the main subject of knowledge with the formula “Know thyself”.Contemporaries considered Socrates the wisest of people, but Socrates himself considered himself insufficiently versed in life matters. The famous thesis of Socrates: "I know that I know nothing."He believed that bad deeds are generated only by ignorance and no one is evil out of good will. His students were Plato, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Euclid of Megara.

The concepts of sophistry and sophistscomes from the Greek word for "wisdom". Literally translated, the word "sophist" means "sage, expert, master." Sophists (V - first half of IV centuries BC) - paid "teachers of wisdom". They taught the art of convincing, speaking beautifully and arguing one's thoughts correctly, and most importantly, the art of refuting the judgments of the other side. Sophists played a big role in the development of rhetoric (eloquence) and the science of language (linguistics), sophisms (paradoxes) discovered by them became the most important stimulus for the development of logic. Sophisms are logical devices, thanks to which the conclusion that was correct at first sight turned out to be false in the end, and the interlocutor got confused in his own thoughts. The most famous of the sophists: Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Prodicus, Critias.

Sophism "horned"

The first premise is that what you have not lost, you have.

Premise 2: You didn't lose your horns.

Conclusion: therefore, you have horns.

The error consists in accepting the first premise as true.

Socrates developed the doctrine of virtue, according to which people are made virtuous by knowing what is good and evil. Among the virtues Socrates recognizes:

courage is knowing how to overcome fear;

justice is the knowledge of how divine and human laws must be carried out;

moderation is the knowledge of how to curb one's passions.

Socratic philosophizing finds its continuation with the Cynics, Cyrenaics, and Megaricians.

Cynics:(4th century BC) Antisthenes, Crates, Diogenes. They affirmed the unlimited spiritual freedom of the individual. On this basis, the social cosmos - the policy acted as a secondary one. The whole power of being is in man, in himself is the whole microcosm. The social connection did not excite them.

Cyrenaica:(5th century BC) Aristippus of Cyrene, a student of Socrates, founded a school in the 4th century. BC. Theodore, Hegesius, Annikerides - the moment of attention to the individual is intensified, the principle of subjectivism is visible. This distinguishes them from Socrates.

Megarics.Founder Euclid of Megara. (450 - 380 BC). Eubulides, Diodorus, Kronos. Euclid - there is good, there is no evil: we are talking about the beginnings of the cosmos. The beginning cannot be regarded as unwholesome. When Socrates proclaimed a call to consider concepts, he was picked up by the sophists: Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Prodicus, Critias, Antiphon. The focus is not on space, but on man.

Plato and Aristotle

ancient philosophy socrates aristotle

Ancient philosophy reached its highest flowering in the classical period, during the period when Plato and Aristotle lived and worked.

Plato(428/427 - 347 BC) was one of the most devoted students of Socrates. The real name of Aristocles, Plato is a nickname meaning "broad-shouldered." Writing more than 30 dialogues was associated with the name of the teacher - Socrates. They were based on the topics of the disciples' conversations with Socrates. Among the most famous are the following dialogues: "Theaetetus", "Sophist", "Parmenides", "State", "Protagoras", "Feast", Phaedrus, "Crito", "Apologies of Socrates", etc.

Plato opened the philosophical school "Academy" in Athens. The name "academy" arose due to the fact that the school was located in a grove dedicated to the mythical hero Academ.

Plato was the founder of objective idealism, which was facilitated by the vicissitudes of life of the great thinker.

Wrote over 30 dialogues

In the "Dialogues" of Plato, "Phoenix" Publishing House, 1998, a preface by the famous Russian philosopher Vl. Solovyov is given. Sergeevich, in which the author tried to reveal the life drama of Plato. Plato's teacher - Socrates had to die as a criminal and this was a tragic blow at the very beginning of Plato's life drama. Plato was struck by the death of Socrates and for a long time could not live in that society that executed the good and smart person.

The death of Socrates convinced Plato that the world in which the righteous must die for the truth is not a real, genuine world. There is another world where truth lives. This is the vital basis for Plato in the truly existing ideal cosmos, different from and opposite to the illusory world of sensible phenomena. His idealism, according to V.S. Solovyov, Plato took out from the deep spiritual experience with which his life began. Life brought sad thoughts: The whole world lies in evil; the body is a tomb and a prison for the spirit; society is a coffin for wisdom and truth; the life of a true philosopher is a constant dying. Plato flees from his native city and settles for several years in Megara with other Socrates. He returns to his hometown 5 years after the death of Socrates, where he does not study for a long time public affairs, revealing a pessimistic mood in his dialogues: Gorgias, Menon, Phaedo, book 2 of The State, etc.

A few witnesses say that before meeting with Socrates, Plato wrote love poems. And not by naive misunderstanding, the idea of high and pure, ideal - Platonic love is connected with the name of Plato.

Plato creates a doctrine of ideas, where the true world - the realm of ideas, distinguishes from the apparent and unreal sensual, bodily world. The realm of ideas, according to Plato, is the world of good beings. The sensory world is changeable, multiple with negative phenomena. Matter, according to Plato, is corporeal, eternal, but dead, formless and unknowable. There is a relationship between ideas and things of the sensible world: ideas are prototypes of things, and things are involved in ideas, ideas determine the development of things. Plato's thing « otherness of the idea, its copy”.

5. Plato recognizes the existence Mind demiurge,who is the creator - organizer of the world. He generates the World Soul, organizes matter, creates other gods. Cosmos, according to Plato: "a living being endowed with soul and mind." The body of the cosmos is material. Space is finite, spherical. At the center of the world is Earth, around it is a celestial sphere, where the Sun, Moon, planets and stars rotate in different circles. The celestial bodies are the gods, possessing a body and a soul.

The soul, according to Plato, is immortal. After the death of a person, she ascends to the realm of ideas, staying there for some time. Then it falls to the ground and inhabits the body of a newborn.

World soul - unites the corporeal world and the world of ideas. He also has an individual soul - it is a micro-incarnation of the world soul. The individual soul reproduces the cosmos.

Plato claims that there can be not knowledge, but “opinion” about sensible things and phenomena. The sensual world according to Plato is the product of "ideas" and "matter". Between ideas and sensible things, Plato placed mathematical objects accessible to rational knowledge. The method of cognition is dialectics, by which Plato understood a double path: climbing the steps of generalization of concepts up to the highest genera and the return path of descent from the most general concepts to concepts of less and less generality. Cognition, according to Plato, is "the recollection by the soul of those ideas that it has already seen."

The list of his famous works includes the philosophical and political essay "The State", in which the philosopher expresses his vision of an ideal state. In political views, Plato was a representative of the Athenian aristocracy. In the doctrine of society, he depicted an ideal aristocratic state, the premise of which is slave labor (“Laws”); Philosophers rule the state;it is guarded by "guardians" or "warriors"; Below these ranks of free citizens are "artisans". In this understanding of the division of labor, K. Marx sees the genius of Plato.

The teachings of Plato formed the basis of all idealistic philosophy. Platonism dominated the Middle Ages until the 13th century, then competed with Aristotelianism (in the form of Thomism). Interest in it arises both in the Renaissance and in the New Age. Schelling and Hegel are of particular interest.

Aristotle(Stagirite) (384 - 322) - a student of Plato, the founder of the science of logic and a number of industries special knowledge. Born in Thrace in the town of Stagira (on the shores of the Aegean Sea). He studied and taught at the Academy of Plato, staying there for 20 years. After the death of Plato, he wandered for several years, and in 335 BC. returns to Athens and:

Opens his philosophical school - " Likey", which was located in a grove dedicated to Apollo of Lyceum.

The disciples and followers of Aristotle were often called " peripatetics",that is, walking, since in Lika it was customary to engage in philosophy while walking through the grove.

Aristotle is rightly called encyclopedistAncient Greece. His works cover almost all fields of knowledge then known: logic, psychology, biology, political science, economics, history of philosophy, poetics, ethics, etc.

Aristotle believed that the speculative sciences are superior to the creative ones. According to Aristotle, people engaged in practical activities “explore the not eternal” and although we do not get immediate benefit from philosophy, nevertheless, it is the most valuable of the sciences, because, existing for its own sake, it is aimed at knowing the truth (the root causes, the existent and the eternal ).

5. The central part of his legacy is a philosophy named several centuries after his death "Metaphysics"(literally - "after physics") . This is the science of "causes and beginnings."

Essence, according to Aristotle, is capable of independent existence. The form of any thing - the essence of every thing - is the first cause of essence. The first two reasons are form and matter- are sufficient to explain reality, if it is considered statically. Moreover, with the relation of matter and form, Aristotle adheres to the understanding that "matter is passive, but form is active."The other two - the active (or motor) and the final (or target) causes - make it possible to explain reality in dynamics.

God, according to Aristotle, exists forever, as pure thought, happiness, complete self-completion. God is the ultimate cause of all activity. One God consists of form without matter. It is the form of all forms.

The philosophy of Aristotle contains a number of brilliant conjectures, which later found confirmation. For example, the Aristotelian hierarchy of the primary elements (earth, water, air, fire and ether) latently contains the idea of universal gravitation.

Aristotle, proceeding from the unity of body and soul, considered sensual inclinations and passions as properties of the soul, its unreasonable part. In accordance with this, in the dominance of reason over sensual drives, he saw a necessary condition for right choice a man of his destiny, as well as an expedient way of life and actions. According to Aristotle, the perfection of a person, his achievement of the highest good and freedom, occurs through cognitive activity, an active attitude to reality and gaining power over desires and passions.

Aristotle criticizes Socrates (indirectly Plato) for his desire to intellectualize morality, and in particular, the thesis "No one does evil of his own free will." Aristotle believes that a person has power over himself and must be responsible for his actions. He respected Plato, but criticized him: " Plato is my friend but the truth is dearer».

He comes to the conclusion that the Platonic idea of the good is unreal and inaccessible to man. A real good is a good that is achievable by a person, that is, realized in his actions and deeds. Aristotle expresses the idea that a person with a moderate feeling for himself will be guided by reason, justice, strive for temperance and noble deeds.

Man, according to Aristotle, is a “public, state being”. He has "intelligence". However, Aristotle denies the Platonic construction of the state in relation to excessive unity, in particular, ensuring the unanimity of citizens. He is a supporter of not absolute, but relative unity.

Aristotle views man as responsible for his own destiny and well-being. Virtue, according to Aristotle, involves active volitional activity and a "certain state of mind" necessary for "conscious" and intentional action. Aristotle considers man a "political animal"

In philosophy, Aristotle distinguished: the theoretical part - the doctrine of being, its parts, causes and beginnings; practical activity - about human activity and poetic - about creativity. Yes, in his "Poetics" Aristotle develops the theory of tragedy and catharsis - the purification of the soul through art.

14. In cosmology, Aristotle rejected the teachings of the Pythagoreans and developed a geocentric system that retained power over minds until the heliocentric theory of Copernicus.

Aristotle understands human happiness as self-perfection.

Aristotle is the founder of European (classical) logic. He singled out and formulated three laws of correct thinking: the law of identity, the law of the excluded middle, and the law of non-admission of contradiction. He owns the definitions of truth and lies, the development of syllogistics (the doctrine of the correct and incorrect types of inference - syllogisms). Works on logic were combined into the book "Organon" (Tool), i.e. a necessary tool of knowledge in all philosophical directions. Logic for Aristotle was an introduction to all sciences.

Knowledge, according to Aristotle, is primarily knowledge of the general and the causes of all things. It is comprehended only by the mind, and not by the senses.

Nature as a whole is understood as a single living organism, where "one arises for the sake of another."

Hellenistic and Roman philosophy (III century BC - VI century AD)

epicurean school . Epicurus (341-270 BC) Titus Lucretsky Kar (95-55 BC).

The Purpose of Philosophy - human happiness. The world is fully cognizable by the human mind. Knowledge of the world can lead to happiness in real life. The main condition for achieving happiness is the comprehension of oneself. Neither God nor the state gives happiness. Happiness is in the person. The ideal of happiness is in spiritual pleasures, in a secluded life that avoids politics.

Main idea - ethics that leads to happiness (eudemonism) through a state of spiritual stability (ataraxia), which can only be developed by a sage who is able to overcome the fear of death. Epicurus is an ancient Greek moral philosopher of the Hellenistic era, an Athenian by birth. Founder (306 BC) of an original philosophical school "Garden of Epicurus".Wrote about 300 essays. His motto: "Live unnoticed!".

Epicurus divided the sciences into physics, epistemology (canonics) and ethics. “Without natural science, one cannot acquire unclouded pleasures,” said Epicurus, hence the need to study nature. He develops the atomistic doctrine of Democritus. However, in the idea of universal conditionality (determinism), Epicurus introduces a moment of chance, freedom, in which the movement of atoms can spontaneously change, randomly deviate, which leads to the substantiation of the possibility of free will in humans (indeterminism). Atoms, according to Epicurus, are eternal and unchanging, the number of worlds is infinite. The gods exist in the interworld space and do not interfere in the affairs of people.

The human soul is atomistic, it is “poured” throughout the body, it contributes to sensations.

The highest good in life is pleasure. Pleasure, according to Epicurus, is, first of all, the absence of suffering, and not sensual pleasures..

Stoicism - one of the schools of ancient Greek philosophy, the founder of which was Zeno of Kition(originally from the island of Cyprus). The name comes from the name of the portico "Stoya" ("Colorful Hall") in Athens, where the first Stoics gathered.

Among the Roman Stoics, it should be noted Seneca, Epictetus, Antoninus, Arrian, Marcus Aurelius, Cicero, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertes and etc.

Stoic philosophyis divided into three main parts: physics(philosophy of nature), logic and ethics(philosophy of the spirit). The physics of the Stoics is composed mainly of the teachings of their philosophical predecessors (Heraclitus and others) and therefore is not particularly original. It is based on the idea of the Logos as an all-determining, all-generating, all-pervasive substance - a rational world soul or God. All nature is the embodiment of a universal law, the study of which is extremely important and necessary, because it is at the same time a law for a person, in accordance with which he should live. In the bodily world, the Stoics distinguished between two principles - the active mind (aka Logos, God) and the passive mind (or qualityless substance, matter). The Stoics were engaged in the development of formal logic a lot, they studied the forms of thinking as "fixed fixed forms." However the main part of their teachingthat made them famous in the history of philosophy and culture, was their ethics, the central concept of which was the concept of virtue.Only a life directed towards goals that are also natural goals can be called virtuous. Virtue is will. Stoicism, especially in its Roman version, had a great influence with its religious tendencies on the then emerging Neoplatonism and Christian philosophy, and its ethics turned out to be surprisingly relevant in modern times, attracting attention with the idea of the inner freedom of the human person and natural law.

Test question: The statement “We cannot change world relations. We can only one thing - to gain high courage. Worthy of a virtuous person and with his help endure everything that fate brings us and surrender to the will of the laws of nature ”characterizes the philosophical position: stoicism.

Neostoicismalso paid great attention to the problems of morality. The main task of philosophy is moral healing, the education of virtue. The main value is love for other people, it is instilled in man by God.

Skeptics(skeptomai - I doubt it). The principle of doubt, distrust is laid down, which opposes dogmatism. The creative potential of man, according to skeptics, can only be expressed in the discovery of the unreliability of any knowledge, i.e. a person can be critical of reality. Skepticism manifests itself in various teachings. The Eleians criticized Heraclitus, the sophists. In ancient philosophy, criticism and skepticism helped philosophers work out their positions.

In the treatises of the skeptics Pyrrho, Plato, Agrippa, Sextus Empiricus, abstinence from judgments, a return to sensations, feelings are expressed. This is a step back.

An extreme form of skepticism is agnosticism- denial of the cognizability of the world.

Neoplatonism:Plotinus, Ammonius, Sakkas, Proclus (3-6 centuries AD) - continuation of Platonism.

The main line of antiquity - understanding the integrity of the world. Where there is no such orientation, one can speak of the onset of a crisis in the ancient consciousness. The crisis is associated with social collisions: a) with the conquest of Greek policies; b) the collapse of the Roman Empire.

So, the focus of ancient philosophyanalysis of the relationship of a person with the world, as well as the corresponding way of understanding the world. Philosophical awareness of the relationship between man and the world is a practical necessity for the human mind. Philosophy first emerges as a form of knowledge and as a form of reaction to the need to establish the real content of the connection between man and the world.

Ancient philosophy is characterized by a focus on considering everything that exists. in unity. The question of unity is the question of wholeness.

1. The specificity of the philosophical knowledge of that era is to identify the general nature of the studied characteristics. Philosophy is not concerned with particular characteristics;

2. Features of philosophizing in the ancient world are associated with a special social life order. For example, the concept of "cosmos" (translated from ancient Greek as "order") from the point of view of the ancient Greek is a close, limited world in which a person lives, i.e. under the cosmos, human existence was conceived, his universe, which he mastered through activity;

Antiquity is characterized by the fact that philosophical knowledge and consciousness is the embodiment of any knowledge, any knowledge in which the final dismemberment of philosophy and special sciences did not occur during this period, therefore we find in the philosophy of antiquity an interest in the laws of nature, society, methods and methods of cognition in undivided form. So, for example, Pythagoras in his treatises wrote out not only mathematical things, but also studied philosophy. Philosophical dialectic of number was the basis of mathematical regularities. Democritus, as the founder of the atomistic theory, makes an attempt to determine the natural basis of all that exists through the atom. For Democritus, the atom is a universal characteristic of the structure of everything. Through the idea of the atom, Democritus sees the world as a whole;

Antiquity is characterized by a substratum-substantial approach. A substrate is something that something is made of. Substance is the creative principle; the beginning of all things in antiquity is a self-developing beginning;

A specific feature of antiquity is syncretism (indivisibility of consciousness), its positivity is that philosophy has not completely turned into natural philosophy (philosophy of nature), but special. the sciences have not yet lost their common ground. The basis was philosophical knowledge;

Man in ancient philosophy is not the subject of special consideration. It is the moment of the cosmos. The concept of the microcosm appears. For example, in the Milesian school, the cosmos is spoken of as the existence of a primary substance that permeates everything that exists. Man, as a microcosm, does not escape this fate and is also permeated with the breath of the world, this fundamental principle. Heraclitus: "one of all and all of one."

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