Problem formulations.
Problem comment
Template 3.
Template 2.
problems in modern world lots of. One of them is the problem... It is this question, which cannot but excite modern man, that affects .... . It should be noted that this problem has existed for a long time, but it is still relevant today. And me, a resident modern society, this question cannot but excite.
The author appears to me as a skilled writer. His speech is simple and accessible, reasoning is clear. … (Full Name) thinks (tells) about ... (= retelling). He thinks we should...
In life, this problem has touched me personally. …
There are many problems in the modern world. One of them - …. .It is this problem, which cannot but excite modern man, that (the author of the text) touches upon in his text. . (can be found in task A28, 29, 30)
1. Role (of something or someone) in a person's life.
2. The problem of influence (something or someone) on a person.
3. The problem of destination (something or someone).
4. The problem (of something or someone) in our country.
5. The problem of displacement (of something) (of something).
6. The problem of relationships between generations ("fathers and children").
7. The problem of memory (about someone or something).
8. The problem of moral choice.
9. The problem of a humane attitude towards people in need of help.
10. The problem of human responsiveness, mutual assistance.
11. The problem of moral duty.
12. The problem of protection and conservation of nature.
13. The problem of the preservation and development of the Russian language.
14. The problem of servility and obsequiousness.
15. The problem of family (kindred) relations.
16. The problem of historical memory.
17. The problem of commercialization of culture…
Slavic languages are part of the Indo-European language family. This was established in the 19th century. on the basis of a number of common features in the languages of peoples who today are thousands of kilometers apart from each other, but who once had common ancestors. By the percentage of coinciding roots in related languages and the correlation of common words (denoting industrial activity) with archaeological finds, it is possible to establish the time of the beginning of the collapse of the ancient Indo-European community - approximately at the turn of the 4th-3rd millennium BC. But where did the Indo-European tribes start from and with what famous archaeological cultures in Europe
3rd millennium BC can you identify them? All this causes scientific controversy: some scientists believe that the southern Russian steppes were the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans, others place it in the Balkans, and others in Asia Minor.
Developed by the XII century. BC. on the territory of Europe from France to Kievan Rus, the cultural-historical community (a group of cultures similar in type) of “burial fields” became the basis for the formation of such European peoples as the Celts, Germans, Italics, etc., as well as Latvians, Lithuanians and Slavs. The latter until about the middle of the 1st millennium BC. represented a single Balto-Slavic community. Another milestone can be distinguished - V-VI centuries. AD - when between the Oder and the Dnieper, on the territory of present-day Poland, the Czech Republic, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia, several archaeological cultures are formed (Prague, Penkovsky, "long mounds", etc.), which are considered unconditionally Slavic. At the same time, the Slavs, as a special ethnic group, begin to be mentioned in written sources - from the Gothic historian of the 6th century. AD Jordan and Byzantine writers and chroniclers.
The ethnogenesis of the Slavs in the interval between the X century. BC. and VI century. AD, marked by the movement of various tribes and peoples, the rise and fall of entire cultures, is still the subject of scientific disputes (especially since it is not entirely clear which peoples the ancient authors of the 1st-4th centuries AD had in mind, calling them Antes and Wends). Some historians believe that the ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote about the ancestors of the Slavs - "Scythian plowmen", or "chipped" in the 5th century. BC.; Slavic also include Zarubinets (I century BC - II century AD) and Chernyakhov (II-IV centuries AD) archaeological cultures in the Middle Dnieper region. Settled agricultural tribes of Skolots in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. were part of a powerful ethno-political association - the Scythian kingdom and, together with other peoples, came into contact with the ancient world of the Northern Black Sea region.
Here, since the VI century. BC, in the process of the great Greek colonization, small settlements began to appear, many of which then turned into prosperous city-states of Olbia, Chersonesos (Sevastopol), Theodosia, Gorgippia (Anapa), Dioscuria (Sukhumi), Fasis
(Poti) or to powerful Greek-barbarian states - such as the Bosporus kingdom with its capital in Panticapaeum (Kerch). The heyday of the ancient centers of the Black Sea region was caused by their diversified economy and well-established trade relations. Grain, salted and smoked fish, as well as slaves were exported from the shores of the Black and Azov Seas to Athens and other cities of Greece. In exchange, local residents received wine, olive oil, non-ferrous metals, dishes and jewelry (precious items made in Greek workshops for the Scythian nobility now adorn the treasuries of the Hermitage and other museums). However, there were also difficult times when the ancient city-states experienced the onslaught of barbarians. The Scythians in the Black Sea steppes were replaced by warlike Sarmatians; in II-III centuries. AD Goths moved from the southern shores of the Baltic to the northern shore of the Black Sea. Until the beginning of the III century. AD Crimea remained the extreme northeastern outpost of the Roman Empire: its soldiers guarded Chersonese, and warships were based at the fortress of Kharaks in the area of the modern Swallow's Nest near Alupka. However, in the IV century. AD constant barbarian invasions brought the empire to ruin. The extensive Hun union of nomadic tribes that developed in Central Asia in 370 AD. crossed the Volga, defeated the Black Sea centers, defeated the Sarmatians and Goths, driving them, along with the "Chernyakhovites" and other peoples, to the west.
Other historians point to a sharp gap between the cultural traditions of the rich Chernyakhiv culture (with pottery, the use of glass, with Roman coins and jewelry, which speaks of the stable economic ties of this culture with the Roman Empire) and the much poorer Slavic monuments of the 6th century. AD Scientists believe that the process of Slavic ethnogenesis took place to the north, on the territory of modern Poland and Belarus within the boundaries of the culture of underklesh burials (IV-I centuries BC) and the Przeworsk culture (II-V centuries AD); in the west, the Proto-Slavic tribes were in contact with the best metallurgists of that era - the Celts and used their achievements, having mastered the manufacture of chain mail, locks with keys, saws, files; from the Germans, such words as “sword” and “helmet” entered the language of the Slavs.
In the era of the collapse of the ancient world, the "great migration of peoples" also captured a certain part of the Slavic population. In the VI century. AD The Slavs are already entering the international arena on their own. Since the middle of the century, they have been systematically invading beyond the Danube into the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), besieging and plundering Constantinople, Thessaloniki and Athens, undertaking sea expeditions to Crete and South Italy.
In the middle of the 1st millennium AD. The Rhine and Danube became borders, on both sides of which the formation of medieval society in Europe went in different ways.
On the territory of the former Roman Empire, this process had the character of synthesis: the newcomers - barbarians and the "kingdoms" they created mastered the traditions and achievements of the previous ancient civilization: the system of means of communication, developed forms of land ownership, money circulation, Mediterranean trade routes.
The centers that emerged in antiquity (Cologne, Vienna, Paris, London, Marseille) turned into medieval cities. The structure and property of the Christian church, independent of the state, has been preserved. Together with the barbarian laws - "truths", Roman law acted. Despite a certain decline, the Roman system of education (“seven liberal arts”) survived, and for many centuries Latin remained the language of science and culture.
The social stratification of barbarian society led already in the 7th-8th centuries. to the emergence of private estates - estates-seigneuries with dependent peasants - and the formation of vassal-feudal relations with the hierarchy of feudal landowners, whose center of power since the 10th century. castles dominated the rural district.
In the east of Europe, development took a different path - new public structures and institutions grew directly out of "barbarian", primitive tribal relations in the absence of significant cities and trade. Most of the population here were free communal peasants who paid tribute-tax to the state in the person of the prince and his squad.
The Slavs also moved to the east: a wave of migrations from the banks of the Vistula and the southern coast of the Baltic began in the middle of the 1st millennium AD, and in the 7th-9th centuries. another group of tribes came from the Danube. So the Slavic tribes began to develop the vast sparsely populated territories of the East European Plain. Thanks to colonization, a huge multinational Russia with its colossal reserves of natural resources. The abundance of undeveloped lands made it possible to exploit the country's natural resources for a long time - at the beginning in the form of fishing, hunting, forestry, and from the 17th century. and mining. However, together with other natural factors, it stimulated the development of not an intensive, but an extensive economy, which later became one of serious problems modernization of the domestic economy. Large spaces and natural resources gave the society a significant “margin of safety”, but at the same time created a situation where dozens of peoples with different levels of socio-economic and cultural development live on the territory of one country (sometimes even within the same region or region).
Another feature of our historical development was the neighborhood of the world of settled farmers and townspeople with the world of nomadic tribes. The strip of steppes, stretching for thousands of kilometers from the Altai Mountains to the Danube, was the road for nomadic peoples, who wave after wave moved from the depths of Central Asia to the west. The more numerous the herds, the faster they eat and trample the grass, and the sooner they need to be driven further and further ...
After his death in the middle of the 5th c. In the early 1900s, the peoples of the Hunnic state, previously designated by the common name "Huns", began to develop into independent political associations. Mentions of them appeared in Byzantine and Transcaucasian historical chronicles and in our "Tale of Bygone Years". She kept the news about the "tormenting" of the Slavic tribes by the "obram" - the Avar horde. In 626, the Avar army (which included Slavic detachments) besieged the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople. And at the end of the VIII century. The Avar Khaganate fell under the onslaught of the army of the King of the Franks Charlemagne, and the ancient Russian chronicler, recalling this, considered it necessary to quote the proverb: "Die, like a gain."
In the VI century. AD in Great Steppe a huge Turkic Khaganate is taking shape, with which the largest states of that time - China, Iran, Byzantium - were forced to reckon. After a bloody civil strife, the Khaganate collapsed, and new formations began to appear on its ruins. In the 30s. 7th century in the Azov steppes, Great Bulgaria appeared - the state of nomadic Bulgarians. Under the pressure of the Khazars, part of the Bulgarians migrated beyond the Danube, where, mingling with the local Slavic population, laid the foundation for modern Bulgaria; the other part went north and settled in the Volga region. Here in the X century. at the crossroads of international routes - the river Volga and caravan, connecting Central Asia and Eastern Europe, Volga Bulgaria was formed, the closest neighbor of Russia. The Bulgarians converted to Islam and in 986 sent their ambassadors to Kiev, urging Prince Vladimir to convert to the Muslim faith. The Turkic-speaking Bulgarians formed the basis of new ethnic groups that were already forming within the Golden Horde - the Chuvash and Tatars.
In the middle of the 7th century The Khazars became the masters of the southern steppes, who created a huge multi-ethnic state that included the Eastern Crimea, North Caucasus and steppes between the Volga and the Don. The Khazar Khaganate united nomadic and sedentary peoples - Khazars, Bulgarians, Mordovians, Alans, Slavs; in the cities - Phanagoria, Belenjer, Semander, Atil there were quarters of artisans and merchants, both "Rus" and Muslims and Jews. The Khazar authorities controlled trade routes along the Volga and Don, as well as the northern part of the Great Silk Road, which led from China to the cities of the Northern Black Sea region. At the court of the Khazar ruler - khakan, there was a Muslim guard and a special board of seven judges to decide the cases of subjects according to their faith and law.
In alliance with Byzantium, Khazaria fought against the Arab Caliphate. She decided in her own way the issue of choosing a faith: in the 9th century. Khakan and nobility adopted Judaism. The Khazars never managed to create a stable state: the kaganate did not have a unified legislation, culture and written language, however, during its heyday, the state managed to subjugate a number of Slavic tribes (northerners, Vyatichi, Radimichi, glades) and levied tribute from them.
In 898, the Hungarians stood under the walls of Kyiv. They came from “Great Hungary” to the Black Sea steppes, to the left bank of the Volga and Kama, from where, in turn, they were forced out to the west by new nomads, about whom the chronicler indicated under 915: “The first Pechenesi came to the Russian land.” Behind the Pechenegs in the middle of the XI century. Torks followed, followed by the Cumans; then the Tatar-Mongol invasion began. Of course, the interaction of Russia and nomads cannot be
only to endless confrontation. However, over the centuries, it took a lot of effort and money to constantly strengthen the borders and slowly develop the fertile "Wild Field" (as the territory of Russia south of the Oka was called in the 16th-17th centuries). By the way, the last raid of the Crimean Tatars into Russia took place in 1769. The peoples of Western Europe did not experience such an impact, with the exception of the power of the Austrian Habsburgs, reflecting Turkish expansion in the Balkans, and the extreme west of the continent, where during the IX-XV centuries. there was a Reconquista - the displacement of Muslim Moors from the Iberian Peninsula.
Foreword
Topic 1. Eastern Slavs in the second half of the first millennium
Topic 2. Old Russian state (IX - first half of the XII century)
Topic 3. Russian lands and principalities in the 12th - mid-15th centuries.
Topic 4. Russian state in the second half of the 15th - early 17th centuries.
Section 2. History of Russia in the 17th–18th centuries.
Topic 1. Russia in the 17th century.
Topic 2. Russia in the first half of the 18th century.
Topic 3. Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Domestic policy of Catherine II
Section 3. Russia in the 19th century
Topic 1. Russia in 1801–1860 Internal and foreign policy Alexander I
Topic 2. Russia in the 1860s-1890s Domestic policy of Alexander II. Reforms of the 1860s–1870s
Section 4. Russia in the XX - early XXI century.
Topic 1. Russia in 1900–1916 Socio-economic and political development of the country in the early twentieth century.
Topic 2. Russia in 1917–1920 Revolution of 1917. From February to October. dual power
Topic 3. Soviet Russia, the USSR in the 1920s-1930s. Transition to the New Economic Policy
Topic 4. The Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945 The main stages and battles of the Great Patriotic War
Topic 5. USSR in 1945–1991 USSR in the first post-war decade
Topic 6. Russia in 1992–2008 The formation of a new Russian statehood
Section 1. History of Russia from antiquity to early XVII in.
Topic 1. Eastern Slavs in the second half of the first millennium
East Slavic tribes and their neighbors.
In the VI-VIII centuries. Eastern Slavs were divided into tribal unions and populated the vast expanses of the East European Plain.
The formation of large tribal associations of the Slavs is indicated by the legend contained in the Russian chronicle, which tells about the reign of Prince Kyi with the brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid in the Middle Dnieper. The city of Kyiv, founded by the brothers, was allegedly named after the elder brother Kyi.
Eastern Slavs occupied territory from Carpathian mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper reaches of the Dnieper in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Middle Dnieper in the south. Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs: glades, Novgorod (Priilmensky) Slovenes, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Vyatichi, Krivichi, Polochans, Northerners, Radimichi, Buzhans, Volynians, Ulichi, Tivertsy.
The Slavs, developing the East European Plain, came into contact with a few Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. The neighbors of the Slavic tribes in the north were the peoples of the Finno-Ugric group: the whole, Merya, Muroma, Chud, Mordva, Mari. In the lower reaches of the Volga in the VI-VIII centuries. settled nomadic people of Turkic origin - the Khazars. A significant part of the Khazars converted to Judaism. The Slavs paid tribute to the Khazar Khaganate. Slavic trade went through Khazaria along the Volga trade route.
Occupations, social system, beliefs of the Eastern Slavs. The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. Arable agriculture developed on the black earth lands. The slash-and-burn system of agriculture was widespread in the forest zone. Trees were cut down the first year. In the second year, dried trees were burned and, using the ashes as fertilizer, they sowed grain. For two or three years, the plot gave a high harvest for that time, then the land was depleted and it was necessary to move to a new plot. The main tools of labor were an ax, as well as a hoe, a plow, a knotted harrow and a spade, which loosened the soil. Sickles reaped (harvested) crops. They threshed with chains. The grain was ground with stone grinders and hand millstones. On the chernozem lands, plowed agriculture developed, which was called fallow. There were many fertile lands in the southern regions, and plots of land were sown for two to three or more years. With the depletion of the soil, they switched (shifted) to new
plots. The main tools used here were a plow, a ralo, a wooden plow with an iron plowshare, that is, tools adapted for horizontal plowing.
The main producer was a free communal peasant (smerd) with his own tools. The Slavs were also engaged in animal husbandry, horse breeding, extraction and processing of iron and other crafts, beekeeping (beekeeping), fishing, hunting, and trade.
In the VI-VII centuries. among the Slavs, there was a process of disintegration of tribal relations, inequality arose, a neighboring community came to the place of the tribal community. The Slavs retained the remnants of the primitive communal system: veche, blood feud, paganism, peasant militia, consisting of wars.
By the time the state was formed among the Eastern Slavs, the tribal community was replaced by a territorial, or neighboring, community. The community members were now united, first of all, not by kinship, but by a common territory and economic life. Each such community owned a certain territory on which several families lived. There were two forms of property in the community - personal and public. House, household land - personal, meadows, forests, reservoirs, fishing grounds - public. Arable land and mowing were to be divided between families.
At the head of the East Slavic tribal unions were princes from the tribal nobility and the former tribal elite. The most important issues of life were decided at public meetings - veche gatherings. There was a militia ("regiment", "thousand", divided into "hundreds"). A special military organization was the squad, which appeared, according to archaeological data, in the 6th-7th centuries.
Trade routes passed mainly along the rivers. In the VIII-IX centuries. the famous trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" was born, linking Northern and Southern Europe. It originated in the ninth century. From the Baltic Sea along the Neva River, the caravans of merchants got to Lake Ladoga (Nevo), from there along the Volkhov River to Lake Ilmen and further along the Lovat River to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. From Lovat to the Dnieper in the Smolensk region and on the Dnieper rapids they crossed by "drag routes". The western coast of the Black Sea reached Constantinople (Tsargrad). The most developed lands of the Slavic world - Novgorod and Kyiv - controlled the northern and southern sections of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
The Eastern Slavs were pagans. At an early stage of their development, they believed in evil and good spirits. A pantheon of Slavic gods gradually developed, each of which personified the various forces of nature or reflected the social and social relations of that time. At the head of the pantheon of Slavic gods was the great Svarog - the god of the universe, reminiscent of the ancient Greek Zeus. Slavs revered the sun god
Dazhdbog, the god and goddess of fertility Rod and women in childbirth, the patron of cattle breeding, the god Veles. In the VIII-IX centuries. Iranian and Finno-Ugric gods “migrated” to the Slavic pantheon: Khors, Simargl, Makosh. As the communal system decomposed, the god of lightning and thunder, Perun, came to the fore among the Eastern Slavs. Pagan Slavs erected idols in honor of their gods. Served the gods priests - Magi.
Topic 2. Old Russian state (IX - first half of the XII century)
The emergence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs. In the IX - the first half of the XII century. there is a process of folding the early feudal state among the Slavs.
The history of the Old Russian state (Kievan Rus) can be conditionally divided into three large periods:
1) IX - the middle of the X century. - the time of the first Kyiv princes;
2) the second half of the X - the first half of the XI century. - the time of the principality of Vladimir I the Holy and Yaroslav the Wise, the heyday of the Kyiv state;
3) the second half of the XI - the second half of the XII century. - the transition to territorial and political fragmentation, or to specific orders.
Norman theory. One of the sources of knowledge about the origin of the Old Russian state is The Tale of Bygone Years, created by the monk Nestor at the beginning of the 12th century.
According to her legend, in 862, the Varangian prince Rurik was invited to rule Russia. Many historians believe that the Varangians were Norman (Scandinavian) warriors who were hired and took an oath of allegiance to the ruler. A number of historians, on the contrary, consider the Varangians a Russian tribe that lived on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea and the island of Rügen.
According to this legend, on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus, the northern tribes of the Slavs and their neighbors (Ilmen Slovenes, Chud, all) paid tribute to the Varangians, and the southern tribes (Polyans and their neighbors) were dependent on the Khazars. In 859, the Novgorodians "expelled the Varangians across the sea", which led to civil strife. Under these conditions, the Novgorodians who had gathered for a council sent for the Varangian princes: “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no outfit (order) in it. Come to us and rule over us." Power over Novgorod and the surrounding Slavic lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes, the eldest of whom Rurik laid, as the chronicler believed, the foundation of the Rurik dynasty.
In 882, another Varangian prince Oleg (there is evidence that he was a relative of Rurik) captured Kyiv and united the territory of the Eastern Slavs, creating the state of Kievan Rus. So it happened, according to the chronicler, the state of Rus (also called Kievan Rus by historians). Thus, the cities of Kyiv and Novgorod the Great became the centers of the unification of the Slavic tribes into a single state.
The legendary chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians served as the basis for the appearance in the eighteenth century. the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were German scientists Miller and Bayer. MV Lomonosov opposed this theory. The dispute over the origin of the Russian state between historians continues to this day.
Russia under the first princes. In 907 and 911 Oleg made trips to Byzantium and concluded profitable agreements with her. trade agreements. According to the agreements, Russian merchants had the right to live at the expense of the Greeks in Constantinople, but were obliged to walk around the city without weapons. At the same time, the merchants had to carry written documents with them and warn the Byzantine emperor in advance about their arrival. Oleg's agreement with the Greeks made it possible to export the tribute collected in Russia and sell it in the markets of Byzantium.
Under Oleg, the Drevlyans, northerners, and Radimichi were included in his state and began to pay tribute to Kyiv. However, the process of incorporating various tribal unions into Kievan Rus was not a one-time action.
Under the son of Rurik, Prince Igor (912-945), Russia expanded even more, but in 945, during the collection of tribute - polyudya - Igor was killed by the Drevlyans. Power passed to his wife Olga. She brutally avenged the death of her husband. But she also went for a kind of reform, establishing the order and size of the polyud. "Lessons", i.e., clearly established tribute amounts, were introduced, and
places where tribute was brought - "graveyards" were established. The consequences of this simple measure were significant: under Olga, an orderly and organized system of taxation began to take shape, without which the state cannot function. "Graveyards" then became the supporting centers of princely power.
During the reign of Igor and Olga, the lands of the Tivertsy, the streets, and finally the Drevlyans were annexed to Kyiv. Olga was the first of the Russian rulers to be baptized.
The son of Igor and Olga - Svyatoslav (964-972) in the course of numerous campaigns annexed the lands of the Vyatichi along the Oka, defeated the Volga Bulgars and Khazaria. He tried to bring the borders of Russia closer to Byzantium and went on a campaign to the Balkan Peninsula. However, the struggle with Byzantium ended unsuccessfully. On the way to Kyiv in 972, Svyatoslav was ambushed and killed by the Pechenegs.
After a struggle for power, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich ascended the throne of Kyiv, who later received the title of Saint. During the years of his reign (980-1015), a defensive system of the southeastern borders of Russia was created from the Pechenegs (notches and watchtowers), and in 988 Russia was baptized according to the Byzantine model. The spread of Christianity often met with resistance from the population, who revered their pagan gods. Christianity established itself slowly. On the outlying lands of Kievan Rus, it was established much later than in Kyiv and Novgorod. The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the further development of Russia:
1) Christianity affirmed the idea of the equality of people before God, which contributed to the mitigation of the cruel customs of the former pagans;
2) the adoption of Christianity strengthened state power and the territorial unity of Kievan Rus;
4) the adoption of Christianity played a big role in the development of Russian culture, served as a bridge for the penetration of Byzantine Russia into Russia, and through it, ancient culture.
A metropolitan appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople was placed at the head of the Russian Orthodox Church; the church in some areas was headed by bishops, to whom the priests in towns and villages were subordinate.
In general, the policy of St. Vladimir contributed to the development of the statehood and culture of Russia, the growth of its international prestige.
After the death of Vladimir I, one of his sons, Yaroslav, who later received the nickname the Wise (1019–1054), defeated Svyatopolk the Accursed in civil strife, who killed
brothers Boris and Gleb. Under the leadership of Yaroslav, the Pechenegs were finally defeated, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv was erected, schools and a library were opened. At this time, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery arose, chronicle writing and the compilation of the first written code of laws "Russian Truth" began. Dynastic marriages strengthened ties with European countries. The growth of the power and authority of Russia allowed Yaroslav to be appointed Metropolitan of Kyiv for the first time. statesman and the writer Hilarion, Russian by birth.
With the death of the last of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, strife began again. The most popular in Russia at that time was the grandson of Yaroslav Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125), who in 1097 took the initiative to convene a congress of princes in the city of Lyubech. It was decided to stop the strife and proclaimed the principle of "everyone keeps his fatherland." However, the strife continued even after the Lyubech Congress. In 1113, Vladimir Monomakh was invited to the Kyiv throne, temporarily restored the weakened power of the Grand Duke, and pacified the Polovtsy. Vladimir II was an enlightened ruler, the author of Teachings to Children. In 1132, under the sons and grandsons of Vladimir Monomakh, Russia finally disintegrated into separate principalities.
A common form of land ownership was the votchina, i.e., paternal possession, passed from father to son by inheritance. The owner of the estate was a prince or boyar. All the free population of Kievan Rus was called "people". The bulk of the rural population was called smerds. Russkaya Pravda reflected the beginning of the process of enslavement of the peasants. The code of laws speaks of "purchases" and "ryadoviches." The impoverished peasants borrowed "kupa" from the master - grain, livestock, money. The purchase was supposed to work off the debt to its creditor, but was often unable to do this and fell into dependence forever. In other cases, the peasants (ryadovichi) entered into an agreement - a "row" - according to which the prince or boyar pledged to protect them and help if necessary, and the peasants to work. There were also serfs - a category of dependent population, close in position to slaves.
Culture of Ancient Russia. Writing and education. The letter and the alphabet were known in Russia even before the adoption of monotheism, and Christianization contributed to the further development of literacy and the spread of writing. This fact is confirmed by a large number of finds of birch bark letters with texts in various cities of Russia, especially in Novgorod the Great.
Literature. In literature, the chronicle genre is widespread. The most famous is The Tale of Bygone Years, written by the monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery Nestor at the beginning of the 12th century. Metropolitan Hilarion in the middle of the 11th century. a work of a religious and journalistic nature, "The Word of Law and Grace", was created. In the campaigns, epics were formed - solemn epic works that tell about the struggle against the steppes, the courage and resourcefulness of merchants, the courage of heroes.
Architecture. In church architecture, there was a strong influence of Byzantium. Ancient Russia adopted the Byzantine type of cross-domed church. Such buildings include St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Shortly after the construction of the Kyiv Cathedral, the St. Sophia Cathedral appeared in Veliky Novgorod, in the architecture of which original features are already appearing.
Painting. Painting also developed under significant Byzantine influence. From the powerful southern neighbor, the technique of mosaics, frescoes and icon painting came to Russia.
Applied art. Jewelry art, which used the technique of granulation, filigree and enamel, reached a significant flourishing in Ancient Russia. The grain was a bizarre pattern created from thousands of tiny soldered gold or silver balls. The filigree technique required the master to create patterns from thin gold or silver wire. Sometimes the gaps between these wire partitions were filled with multi-colored enamel - an opaque vitreous mass.
East Slavic tribes and their neighbors.
In the VI-VIII centuries. Eastern Slavs were divided into tribal unions and populated the vast expanses of the East European Plain.
The formation of large tribal associations of the Slavs is indicated by the legend contained in the Russian chronicle, which tells about the reign of Prince Kyi with the brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid in the Middle Dnieper. The city of Kyiv, founded by the brothers, was allegedly named after the elder brother Kyi.
The Eastern Slavs occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper reaches of the Dnieper in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Middle Dnieper in the south. Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs: glades, Novgorod (Priilmensky) Slovenes, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Vyatichi, Krivichi, Polochans, Northerners, Radimichi, Buzhans, Volynians, Ulichi, Tivertsy.
The Slavs, developing the East European Plain, came into contact with a few Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. The neighbors of the Slavic tribes in the north were the peoples of the Finno-Ugric group: the whole, Merya, Muroma, Chud, Mordva, Mari. In the lower reaches of the Volga in the VI-VIII centuries. settled nomadic people of Turkic origin - the Khazars. A significant part of the Khazars converted to Judaism. The Slavs paid tribute to the Khazar Khaganate. Slavic trade went through Khazaria along the Volga trade route.
Occupations, social system, beliefs of the Eastern Slavs. The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. Arable agriculture developed on the black earth lands. The slash-and-burn system of agriculture was widespread in the forest zone. Trees were cut down the first year. In the second year, dried trees were burned and, using the ashes as fertilizer, they sowed grain. For two or three years, the plot gave a high harvest for that time, then the land was depleted and it was necessary to move to a new plot. The main tools of labor were an ax, as well as a hoe, a plow, a knotted harrow and a spade, which loosened the soil. Sickles reaped (harvested) crops. They threshed with chains. The grain was ground with stone grinders and hand millstones. On the chernozem lands, plowed agriculture developed, which was called fallow. There were many fertile lands in the southern regions, and plots of land were sown for two to three or more years. With the depletion of the soil, they moved (shifted) to new areas. The main tools used here were a plow, a ralo, a wooden plow with an iron plowshare, that is, tools adapted for horizontal plowing.
The main producer was a free communal peasant (smerd) with his own tools. The Slavs were also engaged in animal husbandry, horse breeding, extraction and processing of iron and other crafts, beekeeping (beekeeping), fishing, hunting, and trade.
In the VI-VII centuries. among the Slavs, there was a process of disintegration of tribal relations, inequality arose, a neighboring community came to the place of the tribal community. The Slavs retained the remnants of the primitive communal system: veche, blood feud, paganism, peasant militia, consisting of wars.
By the time the state was formed among the Eastern Slavs, the tribal community was replaced by a territorial, or neighboring, community. The community members were now united, first of all, not by kinship, but by a common territory and economic life. Each such community owned a certain territory on which several families lived. There were two forms of ownership in the community - personal and public. House, household land - personal, meadows, forests, ponds, fishing grounds - public. Arable land and mowing were subject to division between families.
At the head of the East Slavic tribal unions were princes from the tribal nobility and the former tribal elite. The most important issues of life were decided at public meetings - veche gatherings. There was a militia ("regiment", "thousand", divided into "hundreds"). A special military organization was the squad, which, according to archaeological data, appeared in the 6th-7th centuries.
Trade routes passed mainly along the rivers. In the VIII-IX centuries. the famous trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" was born, linking Northern and Southern Europe. It originated in the ninth century. From the Baltic Sea along the Neva River, the caravans of merchants got to Lake Ladoga (Nevo), from there along the Volkhov River - to Lake Ilmen and further along the Lovat River to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. From Lovat to the Dnieper in the Smolensk region and on the Dnieper rapids they crossed by "drag routes". The western coast of the Black Sea reached Constantinople (Tsargrad). The most developed lands of the Slavic world - Novgorod and Kyiv - controlled the northern and southern sections of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
The Eastern Slavs were pagans. At an early stage of their development, they believed in evil and good spirits. A pantheon of Slavic gods gradually developed, each of which personified the various forces of nature or reflected the social and social relations of that time. At the head of the pantheon of Slavic gods was the great Svarog - the god of the universe, reminiscent of the ancient Greek Zeus. The Slavs revered the god of the Sun Dazhdbog, the god and goddess of fertility Rod and women in childbirth, the patron of cattle breeding, the god Veles. In the VIII-IX centuries. Iranian and Finno-Ugric gods “migrated” to the Slavic pantheon: Khors, Simargl, Makosh. As the communal system decomposed, the god of lightning and thunder, Perun, came to the fore among the Eastern Slavs. Pagan Slavs erected idols in honor of their gods. Priests - sorcerers served the gods.
From the first centuries of our era, the Slavs occupied vast areas in the territory of Central and Eastern Europe [from the river. Don and upper reaches pp. Oka and Volga - in the east and up to the river. Elbe (Slavic Laba) and the basin of its tributary - the river. Zaals - in the west; from the Aegean Sea, the northern Black Sea region and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov - in the south and to the Baltic coast and Lake Ladoga - in the north]. According to the language, customs and the whole way of life, the Slavs, who as a whole made up one people, were divided into many scattered tribes. These tribes sometimes entered into allied associations, from which, over time, in some cases, alliances of tribes were formed. In precisely this state, history finds the Slavs long before the formation of the first state associations.
The heterogeneity of the situation of the historical development of the ancient Slavs in the east, south and west of the vast territory they occupied, in a cultural, political, economic and ethnographic environment peculiar to each of the named regions, led the Slavic tribes over time to natural territorial isolation and territorial tribal groupings. As a result of this, three large territorial groups of Slavic tribes were formed - eastern, southern and western. By the time the first state associations arose among the Slavs, the three main tribal groups had diverged significantly in their political and cultural development. This was in close connection with the international political, cultural and economic environment of each of them. This is how the modern three groups of Slavic peoples arose: Eastern Slavs (Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), Western Slavs (Czechs, Slovaks, Lusatian Serbs, Poles and Pomeranian Koshubs with Slovins) and Southern Slavs (Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians and Bulgarians) .
1. Tribal composition
Our oldest historical source, The Tale of Bygone Years, or the so-called Nesterov Chronicle, compiled in 1112, gives a completely definite picture of the ethnographic composition of the East Slavic population in the 8th-10th centuries.
1. In the area of the middle course of the river. Dnieper, on its right bank up to the river. Rosi, live in the field; their administrative, organizational, commercial and cultural center is the city of K and e in.
2. To the north and northwest of the meadows, up to the river. Pripyat, in the basin of the tributary of the river. Dnieper - r. Black grouse and tributaries of the river. Pripyat - rr. Ears, Slavechny and Uborti, i.e. on the territory of the Volyn region, the Drevlyans, or Derevlyans, live, having Iskorosten and Vruchiy (Ovruch) as their cities.
3. On the left side of the river. Dnieper, against the meadows, in the basin of the river. Sula, Desna and Seimas, in the Chernihiv and Poltava regions live northerners, or the north, with the cities: Pereyaslavl, Novgorod-Seversky, Kursk, Chernigov.
4. To the north of the Drevlyans, beyond the Pripyat and up to the Western Dvina in the north live the Dregovichi, who had Slutsk, Kletsk and Drutsk as their cities.
5. To the east of the Dregovichi, between the upper reaches of the Dnieper and the Sozh River, within the Mogilev region, live the Radimichi; about them, the Primary Chronicle Code (end of the 11th century) reports: “from the kind of Poles, who passed away from that place.”
6. North of Radimichi, in the very upper reaches of the river. Dnieper and Western Dvina, in the Pskov region, live Krivichi; their cities are Izborsk and Smolensk.
7. To the west of the Krivichi, north of the Dregovichi and Radimichi, and along the middle course of the river. Western Dvina, Polotsk people related to the Krivichi live (the city of Polotsk).
8. To the north of Polochan and Krivichi, in the lake basin. Ilmen and r. Volkhov in the Novgorod region, they live in Slovenia (the city of Novgorod).
9. Upper and middle reaches of the river. The Oka with its basin is occupied by the Vyatichi, identified by later chroniclers with the Ryazans. According to A.A. Shakhmatova, Vyatichi previously sat to the south, in the basin of the river. Don.
10. In the basin of the upper reaches of the river. Western Bug, as well as the right tributaries of the river. Pripyat live in Buzhan, they are also in Velynyans, or Volhynians; the dules used to live here; late 8th or early 9th century. dulebs moved beyond the river. Pripyat in the region of the Dregovichi.
11. In the river basin. Dniester, between the river. Bug and Dniester, up to the mouths of the river. Danube and the coast of the Black Sea, live near g l and h and, or streets, and Tivertsy; the streets had THEIR city of Peresechen (now the village of Peresechina in the former Orhei district of Bessarabia).
12. In the river basin. Dniester on the territory of later Galicia live Croats, also ranked by the chronicler as Russian Slavs.
The tribes named above, forming the Russian people as a whole, were, of course, not fenced off from each other by impenetrable walls or strictly isolated in their regions without any kind of connection between them. The process of adding up tribal formations and languages, as we already know, from time immemorial proceeded precisely in the order of tribal crossings. The tribal composition of the Russian people, as it is reflected in the pages of the chronicle, is only one of the stages in the history of its ethnographic development. This stage was preceded by a long process of the formation of primary tribal formations in the same territory, rooted in the distant past, tens of thousands of years old. In the same way, the process of the formation of the great Russian people did not end with this stage of tribal formation. Our people grew out of inter-tribal crossings, which dissolved the previous tribal heritage in a new tribal formation.
“The term “Slav” itself, like “Russian,” notes N.Ya. Marr, is likewise not the contribution of historical epochs within Russia. In the formation of a local Slav, a specific Russian, as, indeed, by all appearances, and Finns, the actual prehistoric population should be taken into account not as a source of influence, but as a creative material force of formation: it served in the process of the birth of new economic conditions that forged a new society, and a new tribal crossing factor in the formation of both Russians (Slavs) and Finns. Prehistoric tribes, therefore, - in speech, all the same Japhetids, equally sit in the Russian Kostroma province, as well as in the Finns, as well as in the Volga Turks, who, together with the Finns, received a prehistoric Proto-Ural-Altai birth from the Japhetic family, of course - earlier than the Indo-Europeans received their Proto-Indo-European design from the same prehistoric ethnic environment, but specific peoples - Russian, Finnish and Turkish - of the Volga region can be arranged chronologically in the order of events only historical significance, but by no means in the sense of ethnogenic phenomena, since we are talking about the genesis of new species. The origin of new historical species proceeded by no means through influence, but through the interbreeding of numerous species of a prehistoric type, which inevitably arose, on the economic basis of the concentration of ethnic masses, and which have not come down to us in a completely pure form in the entire vast region, even if we do not forget about the Chuvashs.
An excellent illustration of this basic position of N.Ya. Marr cites, by the way, in the article "Chuvash-Japhetids on the Volga". This article, devoted to the question of Russian-Finnish language relations, contains, in particular, an interesting analysis of the word "south", which is now in Finnish and Russian and was erroneously considered until recently in the old ethnographic and linguistic science as "proof once the former continuous foreign (mean - Finnish) population of the region.
So, a tribe is “a certain crossing of a number of tribes, a proper tribal formation on the basis of class production, class formation ...”.
“This is the construction of one of the production and social groups that were part of it, from which its name was transferred to the whole tribe, it is also a sound signaling of magical power, the axis of the corresponding association ...”.
Returning to the tribal composition of the Eastern Slavs in the 8th-10th centuries, as it is depicted in the chronicle, it is necessary to note several facts emphasized by the chronicler. These facts partly reveal the process of formation of tribal formations. This is, firstly, the testimony of the annals of dulebs. Previously, they lived along the Bug, says the chronicler, where the Volhynians now live, formerly called Buzhans. It is known that at the end of the VIII or at the beginning of the IX century. dulebs moved out from the right bank of the river. Pripyat (present-day Ukraine) to the left, to the region of the Dregovichi, i.e. on the territory of present-day Belarus.
Secondly, speaking of the Radimichi, who lived between the upper reaches of the river. Dnieper and r. Let's squeeze, i.e. in the eastern regions of present-day Belarus, the chronicler twice notes their Lyash origin. The appearance of immigrants from the west, the Radimichi, in the region of the Dregovichi A.A. Shakhmatov connected with the collapse of the Avar state (IX century) and the advance of the Avars after their defeat by the Franks, led by Charlemagne and his son Pepin, starting from 791, to the northeast and east. In this regard, the appearance of the Radimichi tribe in the region of the Dregovichi A.A. Shakhmatov (without any hesitation calling the Radimichi the Lyash tribe) dates back to the 9th century. Under the pressure of the Avar oppression, at the same time they left Volyn for the river. Pripyat to the region of the Dregovichi and further to the basin of the Western Dvina and the river. Great and dumb. According to A.A. Shakhmatov, the name of the villages "Duleby", on the one hand, in Volyn and Galicia, on the other - in Belarus and in the b. Pskov province.
Settling of the “Lyash”, according to Shakhmatov, tribes in the region of the Dregovichi, i.e. on the territory of the Russian tribes, the great-grandfathers of the current Belarusian language and the Belarusian people, explains the presence in the modern Belarusian language of a number of conditionally called Lyakhisms, such as the whistling pronunciation of soft t and so on. -Pskov dialect): a mixture of sounds shis, zhiz, chits (Polish "mazurakanye"), Polish combinations of lengths and tl instead of the East Slavic sound l (wedli, where did we gol and instead of led; zhadl oh, where did a g l about instead of a sting, etc.).
Thus, among the tribes that made up the single Russian people (Eastern Slavs or Russian Slavs), already in the 9th century. the germs of later linguistic differentiation arise in the process of inter-tribal crossings. We are not talking about the completely natural fact that individual East Slavic, i.e. Russian tribal languages from time immemorial had their own dialectical differences precisely because tribal formations and their languages always arise in the process of inter-tribal crossings. The newly emerging tribal crosses, i.e. new tribal formations, like their languages, always keep remnants and cultural heritage their predecessors.
Nikolai Sevastyanovich Derzhavin "Origin of the Russian people"
