What is Austria? To the question of
Austrian identity
/1/ Given today's realities, this chapter may seem redundant. The borders of the Republic of Austria are clearly marked, in terms of national law there is a clearly defined state-forming nation, the majority of the country's citizens also refer to the "Austrian nation". However, the fact that there is a not so small minority - about a quarter of the population - who is not entirely sure about all this indicates that the concept of "Austria" and the definition of its identity is not at all so simple.
Before the Second World War, there were only a few preconditions for the Austrian population to acquire a special identity. Citizens of the Alpine Republic felt like Germans - even if sometimes they were somewhat “best Germans”. Only the communists, who were completely devoid of political weight, began quite early - bearing in mind the role of the historical factor in the formation of nations postulated by Stalin - to defend the thesis of the existence of the “Austrian nation”, and the Austrofascists, in contrast to the idea of \u200b\u200bGerman national unity put forward by the Nazi state, played the card of Austrian identity, even often in its monarchical version. Only after the real Anschluss of 1938 did a change occur in the thinking of most Austrians. The former fear of remaining a small unviable state gradually began to give way to a desire for independence. After 1945, in the Second Republic, the idea of originality and special identity was thoroughly developed and found support from the authorities. /2/ When Austria joined the European Union, it was already necessary to overcome the fear of losing this identity, which sometimes took very curious forms ( Erdapfelsa- lat instead of Kartoffelsalat).
In history textbooks, one can find two almost opposite approaches to the concept of "Austrian history". On the one hand, Austria was and is understood as the territory of today's state, and the past of this particular territory is described. Another possibility is to identify, at least since modern times, the history of Austria with the history of the Habsburg Monarchy and to place what might be called Austria within the borders of the Habsburg lands. Therefore, when presenting the "Austrian history", attention is paid to various areas of the Holy Roman Empire and the Slavic, Romanesque and Hungarian territories associated with Austria until 1918.
Both models give rise to specific difficulties. If we proceed only from today's state territory, then it has never really been possible to recreate with due completeness the history of only one of the areas subject to the Habsburgs - a dynasty involved in so many international conflicts that it is simply impossible not to take into account pan-European aspects. However, the advantage of this approach to the subject of research is that for centuries the territory under consideration has not changed its borders. Understanding the history of Austria as the history of the Habsburg Monarchy, while avoiding the problems caused by a too narrow view of the subject, has other weaknesses. On the one hand, many of the peoples whose history is considered in this case have resisted and still resist being labeled "Austria". On the other hand, the subject of research in this case is rather amorphous. Indeed, up to about 1500, the presentation of history is more consistent with the first model, so that the borders of today's Austria can be safely projected into the past, while for the time from about 1526 to 1918, we should talk about (central) European history, so that later , starting from 1918 (the history of the republic), again be limited to the boundaries of the current state. /3/
It is impossible to find a solution that satisfies all the requirements, but there seems to be a recent shift towards a system of concentric circles, or - to use the term from the field of photography - to "focusing". This means that, although the German-speaking part of the Danubian Monarchy is in the center of attention of Austrian historians in the study of modern history, the development of other lands subject to the House of Habsburg is also studied - in particular their impact on the general economic, political and cultural climate. History is no longer viewed from the point of view of the formation of modern statehood, but it also does not turn into the history of individuals or dynasties, and "Austrian nationalism" is kept within its proper boundaries. In addition, it becomes clear that the notion of nation based on language and culture – according to which the majority of Austrians should be considered Germans – is a construct of the 19th century, while before there were other forms of national identity based on state myths, and that, as today, so and in the future, national identity must be constantly re-constructed.
If we carefully consider the state territory of modern Austria, we will inevitably come to the conclusion that 84 thousand square meters. km of today's republic are made up of various territorial units. core future country can be considered the Danube valley. Under the Babenbergs, not only the name itself appeared here for the first time - Ostarrich (Ostarrichi), which later became the name of the whole country, but also a center of political expansion arose, around which other regions grouped over the centuries, but which, nevertheless, retained its paramount importance. It is no coincidence that Vienna, the capital of the Babenberg, Habsburg and Republican state territories, is located in this area. In a broad sense, today's federal state of Upper Austria also belongs to this core of Austrian lands, although some parts of it, such as Innviertel, became part of the country only at a very late time (1779). /4/
Until the end of the XII century. Styria, which until 1918 also included a vast area in the south, where the Slovene language prevailed, developed completely independently under the rule of the Traungau dynasty. Playing an important role in all the redistribution of the Habsburg lands that took place at the end of the Middle Ages and in the early modern times, Styria retained a certain identity, and its capital Graz remained one of the main residences of the Habsburg dynasty for many centuries.
Carinthia and Tyrol only in the XIV century - already after the suppression of the Babenberg dynasty - joined the complex of lands that was to become Austria. Carantania, a very extensive and important political unit in the early Middle Ages, significantly decreased in size after the separation of Styria from it and, due to a number of political circumstances, lost its dominant position in the Alpine region. Subsequently, not a single Carinthian city (neither Klagenfurt nor the even older center of St. Veit) has ever become the residence of the sovereign and the land center of supra-regional significance.
The development of the state of Tyrol proceeded quite differently, which was previously much larger in size than the current federal state. Until 1918, it also covered German and Romanesque South Tyrol, that is, today's Italian provinces of Trentino and Alto Adige. Until the beginning of the 19th century. these parts of the country had a special legal status. Representatives of the ruling class - wealthy landowning nobles and clergy - sat in the Tyrolean Landtag, that is, they were Tyrolean estates; on the other hand, this area itself was not under the jurisdiction of the Habsburgs, but was subject to the bishops of Brixen (Bressanone) and Trient (Trento). Therefore, historically, Tyrol had three centers of power: the Habsburg center in Innsbruck, which functioned for a very long time (1396-1490, 1564-1665), and remained until the beginning of the 19th century. princely courts of bishops in Trient and Brixen.
Like certain parts of the Tyrol, Salzburg was also under the authority of the prince of the church, the archbishop of Salzburg, who exercised power in his subordinate area as a spiritual sovereign. This Salzburg ruler was, even to a lesser extent than the Tyrolean bishops, closely connected with Austrian interests and had constant cultural contacts with the Habsburg border lands - Upper Austria, Carinthia and Styria, with which he actively /5/ interacted. Only in the troubled Napoleonic times did Salzburg become part of Austria in a roundabout way. At first, the lands of the archbishop served as compensation for the Tuscan duke from the Habsburg dynasty, whose possessions passed to Napoleon, and only after that the Salzburg territories passed into the possession of the House of Austria.
However, the westernmost of the current Austrian federal states, Vorarlberg, experienced the most difficult process of formation. The Habsburgs were able to acquire the first possessions in this region soon after the acquisition of Tyrol, however, the complete territorial unification of this extremely fragmented region was completed only in the middle of the 19th century.
The last of today's federal states, Burgenland, (Vienna, by the way, was only separated from Lower Austria in 1920) finally became part of Austria only in 1921. The German-speaking part of Western Hungary (with Croatian and Hungarian minorities) was after the First World War transferred to the Republic of Austria, however, it was possible to establish control over most of the disputed territories (Edenburg / Sopron after the plebiscite went to Hungary) only in 1921, when the Austrian gendarmerie entered there - Austria did not have an army at that time.
Already from this brief overview it is clear that the nine federal states of present-day Austria do not represent a single whole either historically or linguistically (there are Bavarian lands, Alemannic Vorarlberg and linguistic minorities in the country), or culturally. Until the late Middle Ages, the question remained open which of the areas could become the center of a possible "unification". In addition, with many different succession treaties, their own dynasties could well have been preserved in other territories, which could also give the history of the region a completely different direction.
The first attempts to constitute a kind of “common statehood” for the region of the so-called hereditary lands took place already in the late Middle Ages and early modern times, when the Habsburgs, by uniting the Landtags, tried to create a common estate representation and form a common state consciousness among their subjects. However, these first half-hearted attempts failed, faced with a number of objective factors. Dynastic "state based on /6/ personal connection”, as modern researchers call it, with its heterogeneous legal structure and pronounced awareness by certain areas of their own “historical individuality”, could at first be transformed only into an absolutist-bureaucratic state. This administrative and institutional transformation has been persistently carried out since the 18th century. The formation of an identity associated with this common state was difficult, since a strong attachment to one's land, even today, remains at least as essential as the central state idea. Even "Mr" and "Miss Austria" in 2000 felt themselves, first of all, Viennese and Tyroleans.
The history of Austria would have an exclusively local significance if the area subject to the Habsburg dynasty was limited only to those nine lands that now form the Republic of Austria. It was the expansionist policy of the Habsburgs that contributed to the expansion of the territory of the state, making it richer, politically more powerful and creating - thanks to the interaction of various peoples - the prerequisites for a more fruitful development of culture. Over the centuries, representatives of three significant language groups have been in close contact with the Austrian state core: Slavs, Hungarians and Romance, of which the nationalism of the 19th and 20th centuries. created new nations.
Already among the population of the first Austrian lands there was a significant percentage of Slavs - Slovenes who lived in Styria and Carinthia and in Krajna, which is closely connected with Austria. Since the 16th century, due to the annexation of new territories, this percentage has constantly increased. In 1526 Bohemia was annexed with its predominant West Slavic population; at the same time, the Habsburgs managed to establish themselves in Hungary (at first only part of the lands of the crown of St. Stephen was acquired), which again greatly increased the number of western (Slovaks) and southern Slavs (part of the Croatian lands). In the 18th and early 19th centuries Galicia, Lodomeria (1772) and Bukovina (1775) populated by Poles and Rusyns (Western Ukrainians) were annexed, as well as the Dalmatian coast (1797, finally in 1815), which led /7/ to a new significant increase in the Slavic population of the monarchy. And already at the end of the 19th century, when the Habsburg monarchy had to face enormous internal difficulties, it was possible to acquire another territory inhabited by the Slavs - Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Since 1526, one of the main components of the population of the Habsburg monarchy was the Magyars. In addition, there were many Romanians among the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Hungary, and from the 18th century. the territory subject to the Habsburgs expanded to include lands located in northern Italy (and for some time in the south).
Having listed the most politically significant peoples of the monarchy, one should also mention smaller, but culturally quite important ethnic minorities. Greeks and Armenians played a prominent role in trade, and the tragic fate that befell the Roma and Sinti peoples in the 20th century makes us think about our attitude towards people who are called, often disparagingly, “gypsies”. In a similar way - because of their tragic fate, but also because of their great spiritual influence - one can characterize the Jews of the monarchy, whose contribution to Austrian culture proper late XIX- early 20th century can hardly be overestimated.
The diversity of languages, religions and cultures of the Habsburg Monarchy became particularly acute with the rise of modern nationalism, which operated mainly in terms of language, culture and “race” (a very common concept of the 19th century, which today, fortunately, has been abandoned). The connecting elements of the state - in addition to the dynasty, bureaucracy and the army - were primarily symbolic in nature: Haydn's "Imperial anthem", coat of arms and flags, "Austrian" cuisine were usually called such symbols of unity. /8/ It is on the example of the kitchen that one can show those mutual influences and connections that went beyond national boundaries. Constantly cited examples of this imaginary commonality were the “Viennese schnitzel” of Milanese origin, the “German” pork roast with cabbage and Czech dumplings, flour dishes - both borrowed from the same Czech Republic and coming from other parts of the monarchy (the Austrian name for thin pancakes, “ palachinki," betrays their Romanian origin), and, finally, Hungarian goulash (in Hungary it would be called "perkelt"). One often gets the impression that the true content of the concept of "Central Europe", which has recently
Time often tried to give political importance, lies mainly in gastronomy. One way or another, the coexistence of different peoples in one state did not have long-term political significance, which, despite later idealization, is clearly indicated by the centrifugal development of the monarchy.
After 1918, a completely different problem had to be faced. The collapse of the multinational state created a new order in Central Europe, the main ideas of which, at first glance, were the ideas of the national state and self-determination of peoples. However, the nation-states that emerged from the ruins of the monarchy turned out to be in reality small multinational states, and the principle of self-determination of peoples, at least in the case of Austria, never materialized. The proclamation of the German Austrian Republic on November 12, 1918 was not seen as the creation of an original state entity. It was assumed that German Austria would become part of Germany in the future, although annexation (Anschluss) was prohibited in peace treaties with the Entente powers. Therefore, at first, no special identity developed in this state, it was seen as part of Germany. Those who in the First Republic were “nationally” inclined were by no means in the Austrian, but in the “all-German” mood, resolutely refusing to consider the country in which they lived as an independent political entity. The point of view of many people was, as they said then, "imperial". People believed in a great "Reich", which was embodied for them not only in the Holy Roman (incorrectly called the empire of the "German nation") and the later German Empire, but to a certain extent in the Weimar Republic. /9/ ke. After the seizure of power by the National Socialists, it became difficult for some, for example, left-wing Social Democrats, to support this idea, but many other Austrian citizens looked favorably at the National Socialist Germany, which demonstrated its political and economic "successes". The costs of these "successes": the persecution of the Jews and the arms race - either did not see, or did not want to see. If the preconditions for a distinct Austrian identity did exist, they lay in the realm of a great cultural heritage, especially in the realm of music. The cultural achievements of the past and the "cultural vocation" could create a certain continuity, linking a small and politically not self-determined state with which no one wanted to identify themselves with the great past of the former monarchy.
Only the Austrofascists from 1934 to 1938 tried to oppose the threat from National Socialist Germany. Some see the Austrofascist ideology as the first elements of an emerging Austrian consciousness. In doing so, however, one should always keep in mind the specific conditions in which the then Austrian state existed. This Austria was presented by those in power as the "better" German state, whose superiority over Germany allegedly consisted in Catholicism, higher culture and the more friendly and accommodating character of the Austrians. Many of these theses are widespread to this day - unfortunately, they can be heard not only in conversation over a glass of beer, but also from scientists, as, for example, at the Ostarrich-Austria exhibition held in 1996, with which Austria celebrated the thousand anniversary of its name - where the Catholic way of thinking was presented as a central element of the Austrian identity.
A characteristic feature of the crisis that followed after 1918, as well as the situation after 1945, was a strong emphasis on culture - literally a flight into it. The small state felt like a great power in the field of culture, especially in music. It was this identification with music that became /10/ one of those common ideas about Austria that spread so easily around the world. Mozart and the Mozartkugel sweets, Strauss and the New Year's concert, Lanner and Beethoven, the waltz and the Vienna Philharmonic, Schubert and Haydn, Mahler and Schoenberg - if all this is differentiated at all and comprehended by people in a sufficiently multilateral way - were and are identified with Austria. Added to this are also the "Empress" Maria Theresa, baroque castles, palaces and monasteries (again a Catholic element!), Franz Joseph and Sissi and, perhaps, the mystery of Mayerling. Thus, the basis of the Austrian identity is the monarchical past and cultural, primarily musical, achievements. At the same time, the landscape of the country - the Danube and the Alps - as well as literature and science (except perhaps Freud) play practically no role. /11/
In 1938, incorporation into Germany - the inevitability of which was strongly indicated twenty years earlier - became a reality. During the period when Austria did not exist as an independent state, and immediately after it, a new self-consciousness developed. After 1945, dissociation from Germany and from "these Germans" came to the fore. The oft-quoted maxim that the Austrians are accustomed to portraying Hitler as a German and Beethoven as an Austrian conveys this phenomenon in a somewhat caricatured, but not entirely incorrect form. The Founding Day of the Republic, celebrated as a public holiday in the First Republic, now became inconvenient, since the act of proclaiming German Austria contained the idea of joining Germany.
The special position of Austria as a great power in the field of culture, and again, especially in the field of music, began to be emphasized again: the restoration of the State Opera and the Burgtheater, as well as the various festivals that were held everywhere after the war, were symbols of the resurgent Austrian identity. To this were added domestic films with their specific image of the “Austrian”, and later, increasingly, sports. Today, the idea of Austria as a great skiing power plays at least the same role abroad as the image of Austria - the land of music. Identification with the state and awareness of their identity spread more and more, but even in 1956, only 49% of the population felt they were a separate nation, while 46% still felt like Germans. A significant role in the acquisition of a special identity by several generations of Austrians was played by the state treaty of 1955, which made Austria free and independent state, and the associated declaration of permanent neutrality. After the grandiose changes in 1989, the importance of this element of identity began to gradually decrease.
During the period of the Second Republic, the proportion of the country's population who feel themselves to be Austrians increased markedly and in the 1980s, judging by the polls, reached its highest point. It is currently declining. With the entry of Austria into the European Union in 1995, specifically Austrian propaganda is being increasingly supplanted by “European” propaganda. The "Austrian" who barely managed to find himself now begins to feel more like a European. /12/-/13/
From the book Ukraine: history author Subtelny Orestes12. UKRAINE AS PART OF THE RUSSIAN AND AUSTRIAN EMPIRES For about 150 years, from the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 20th century, Ukrainians lived in two different empires: 80% of them were subjects of the Romanovs, the rest - the Habsburgs. So at the dawn of the New Age, Ukrainians find themselves inside political systems,
From the book Ukraine: history author Subtelny OrestesChanges in the Austrian Empire As early as the beginning of 1848, the ruling Habsburg dynasty looked confidently into the future. One of the reasons for this was the recent success of the empire in settling the situation in its most troubled provinces, and one of these provinces was Galicia.
author From the book The Royal Court and the Political Struggle in France in the 16th-17th Centuries author Shishkin Vladimir Vladimirovich From book Short story USA author Rimini Robert W.3. The emergence of identity At the very end of the XVIII century. Two important events took place in the United States. The first was a conflict with France in 1797, when French ministers in Paris tried to get 240,000 dollars from American diplomats in payment for recognition of their mission.
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From the book Crowned Spouses. Between love and power. Secrets of great alliances author Solnon Jean-FrancoisThe Myth of the Austrian Party Despite her own warnings, Maria Theresa of Austria despaired of her daughter's frivolity and "lewdness", as she doubted that she would one day be able to "properly use her influence with the king." After all, the ambassador
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From the book Conversations with a Mirror and Through the Looking Glass author Savkina Irina Leonardovna From the book Liberation of Vienna: a chronicle novel author Korolchenko Anatoly FilippovichAT THE AUSTRIAN BORDER Pursuing the enemy, our troops advanced on a wide front, allowing gaps between divisions that sometimes reached four or more kilometers. The aviation of the 17th Air Army, which
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From the book Complete Works. Volume 23. March-September 1913 author Lenin Vladimir IlyichOn the Question of the Policy of the Ministry of Public Education (64) (Supplements to the Question of Public Education) Our Ministry of People's, pardon the expression, "enlightenment" extremely boasts of the fact that its expenses are growing especially rapidly. In an explanatory note
From the book of Plakh. 1917–2017 Collection of articles on Russian identity author Shchipkov Alexander VladimirovichVacuum of identity The result of the imposition of a negative image of identity was the disorientation of Russian society. In this situation, the real identity is weakened, erased, crushed. So, in modern Russia, a break between the Soviet and anti-Soviet is encouraged,
Many people know Austria as the birthplace of world-famous composers and musicians, as a country with beautiful landscapes and rich history. However, there are facts that not everyone knows about. Interesting, unusual and unique facts about Austria are collected in our review today.
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Most of the territory of modern Austria is covered by the mountain ranges of the Eastern Alps. They occupy 62% of the entire area of this state. Here is also the second highest peak in Europe.
What else is the remarkable geography of the country? For example, Austria holds the record for three types of natural water bodies at once. The first one is the largest glacier in the European part of the continent. The highest cascading waterfall in Europe, the Krimml, is also located here. Water falls down from a height of 380 meters.
It is not surprising that this amazing natural phenomenon causes incomparable delight among all tourists who find themselves in its water domain. Well, how to forget about Lake Neusiedl? In Europe, it has no equal among similar reservoirs of natural origin. The lake is so huge that it is located on the territory of two states at once - Austria and Hungary.
Modern Austria is located on the territory that for several centuries belonged to the state formation of Austria-Hungary. Nine out of ten indigenous people practice Catholicism. The remaining 10% of the population is either Muslim or considered Protestant.
A bit of history
An interesting fact is connected with the origin of the flag. The red and white canvas is considered one of the oldest flags in the world. According to the legend, for the first time the flag was decorated battle flags troops of Leopold of Austria in the 12th century. After the battle, the leader threw off the shirt soaked in the blood of the enemies and found a white stripe, which turned out to be where a wide belt was tied. From that moment on, the red and white canvas became the constant companion of the Austrian emperor, and after that it became the official sign of the whole country.
The first mention of Austria dates back to the 10th century and is associated with the nomadic tribes of the Celts, who were soon conquered by the troops of the Roman Empire.
An interesting legend is connected with another event. In the old days, the locals of the modern city of Salzburg were called "bull washers". There are two versions of the origin of such an original name. According to the first, the inhabitants traditionally washed the slaughtered bulls in the local river. If you believe the second, then they began to call the inhabitants of the town so after they cunningly forced the enemy army to retreat, besieging the city fortress. The inhabitants used an interesting tactic: every day they painted one bull in a different paint and randomly showed it to the attackers. They decided that the city was full of provisions and could not be starved out of it and abandoned all attempts to conquer Salzburg.
First, best, real
The first railway in the mountains was laid in Austria. Its construction began in the 19th century. Despite this, the Semmering railway is actively operated to this day.
Baroque style with an "Austrian flavor" is reflected in the well-known cultural monument - Schönbrunn Palace. Just imagine, it has 1441 rooms of different sizes and purposes.
Tell me, how many of you know that the world-famous actor, athlete, holder of all kinds of knowledge from the world of bodybuilding, and just the Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger was born in Austria? The celebrity was born in a small village on the outskirts of the town of Graz.
And the purest tap water flows in Vienna. Therefore, it is here that you can safely drink water from the pipeline, which is supplied from the purest springs in Austria.
old fashioned austria
In Vienna, the capital of the state, you can visit the oldest Ferris wheel in the world. A small height of 65 meters is unlikely to give tourists an impressive dose of adrenaline. But it will become another place that is definitely worth a visit for every lover of everything rare and old-fashioned. Also in the main city of Austria is the oldest zoo in the world.
Austria boasts another old-fashioned trait. It was in this state that the world's first newspaper appeared.
A Brief History of Austria.
The history of Austria is largely determined by its geographical position. The country is located at the intersection of three cultural areas: Romanesque, Germanic and Slavic
A thousand years before our era, Illyrian tribes settled on the territory of modern Austria. Judging by the found and studied archaeological sites, the Illyrians had a developed culture
On the territory of modern Carinthia in a later period, the Celtic state of Noricum was formed. Even later, the right bank of the Danube becomes a province of the Roman Empire, and then not only the political border passes through the territory of modern Austria, but also the border between the Christian (Roman) and pagan (German) worlds.
In the era of the great migration of peoples, the foundations were laid for the future national-territorial structure of the Austrian lands
From the 4th century n. e. in the foothills of the Alps, an important point of intersection and unification of multilingual peoples is formed
The Germans conquer the northern Roman provinces in the 5th century. Their wave runs into a wave of Slavs migrating in the same direction. In the 500-700s, the power of the dukes of the Bavarian brand was established here. Later, Charlemagne conquers these lands from the Avars tribe (decisive battles took place near Vienna). Finally, with the appearance of the Hungarians, moving from behind the Urals, and their consolidation to the east of the German lands, the migration of large ethnic groups ceased.
From the 10th century, during the reign of the Babenbergs, the Austrian borders were significantly expanded to the south and east, and the residence of the Babenbergs - Vienna - became the capital of a prosperous country, later an empire. The Babenbergs created the foundation of an independent Austrian state. By the time of their reign (about 996) is the first mention of the name of the state - “Ostarrichi”, that is, “eastern country, empire”
The influence of the Babenbergs constantly increased and expanded, including through prudent marriages with politically and religiously strong European families. After during the XI century. under their control were Vienna and most of modern Lower Austria, the same happens with Styria and Upper Austria (1192)
The period of intensive development of trade for Austria began in the middle of the XII century. In 1156 Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa elevated the status of an Austrian territory to a duchy. Since that time, the image of an eagle has been used as a national symbol.
The political and economic strengthening of Austria was accompanied by the flourishing of spiritual life: missionary routes of Christian monks passed through its territory, leaving behind centers of a new, Christian culture - monasteries. Theologians, philosophers, historians, writers worked within the walls of the monasteries
The Austrian lands served as a transshipment base for the crusaders during their campaigns to the East to Christian shrines. In the vicinity of the monasteries, secular culture is also developing: the famous minnesinger (literal translation from German - “singer of love”) Walter von der Vogelweide lived and worked at the Vienna court, and the “Song of the Nibelungs” (the most significant epic work in German) acquired here, on the banks of the Danube, its final form
In 1246, Duke Frederick II Babenberg died in a battle with the Hungarians on the Austro-Hungarian border, leaving no heir. This allows the Czech king Ottokar II to intervene in the affairs of his neighbors and take control of vast, by European standards, territories (the entire space from the Sudetenland along the northern borders of the modern Czech Republic to Adriatic Sea)
Ottokar II overestimated his abilities when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the new Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf of Habsburg. It cost him his life: King Ottokar died in a battle with a powerful enemy in the town of Markfeld in 1278
In 1282, Rudolph grants two sons Austria and Styria as fiefs. Thus began one of the most powerful dynasties ever to rule in Western Europe. The Habsburgs retained power in these lands until the twentieth century.
In the initial period of their rule, the Habsburgs experienced considerable difficulties in relations with their neighbors (including several defeats in wars with the Swiss), but they managed to consolidate their internal forces and resources: Carinthia and Carniola were annexed in 1355. These provinces were followed by Tyrol (1363)
Rudolph IV (Founder), Duke of Austria in 1358-1365, wishing to unite all the lands under one flag, introduced the image of five eagles, in imitation of the symbolism of the Roman emperors. He achieved an increase in his status to that of an archducal. During the reign of Rudolph, the foundation stone of the Cathedral of St. Stephen in Vienna (today the image of the cathedral is one of the symbols of the capital), the University of Vienna is established
In 1453, Frederick III succeeds in legally obtaining the status of archduke, and he is elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He also convinces Pope Paul II of the advisability of raising Vienna - in 1469 the city becomes a bishopric. Friedrich's ambitions sometimes barely fit within a reasonable framework. So, the abbreviation AEIOU became its motto, which, as a rule, is deciphered as follows: “Austria Est Imperator Orbi Universo” (translated from Latin: “Austria is the emperor of the whole world”). In an effort to realize his plans, Frederick began a war with King Mattius Corvinus of Hungary. This led to the occupation of Vienna by the latter in 1485-1490. The reason for the failure, according to eyewitnesses, was primarily that Frederick could not or did not want to attract the Archbishop of Salzburg to his side, and he took the side of Frederick's opponent. Salzburg was in that era an influential church principality
The name of Frederick III is associated with the continuation of the tradition of arranged marriages - the successful political course of the Austrian ruling families (Babenbergs and Habsburgs), which allowed them to extend their influence to many European countries. In 1477, Frederick's son Maximilian, having married Mary of Burgundy, seeks control over Burgundy and the Netherlands
Maximilian's eldest son, Philip, marries a Spanish infanta in 1496, and Charles, Philip's son, achieves even more: he becomes in 1516 Carlos I, King of Spain, and then Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1519 )
Charles passed over all Austrian territories to his younger brother Ferdinand in 1521, who also inherited Bohemia and Hungary through his marriage to Princess Anne after her brother, King Louis II, died in battle with the Turks in 1526. In 1556, Charles abdicated the imperial throne and title, and Ferdinand was crowned in his place. The huge territorial inheritance of Charles passed to his only son Philip II
For several centuries in a row, one of the main concerns of the Austrian rulers was the security of the southern borders, from where the hordes of Turks constantly invaded. In the 20s of the XVI century. the Turks subjugated almost the entire Balkan region, and their eyes were already fixed on Vienna. But Vienna withstood the siege, fortunately short due to the early onset of winter.
In 1571, Maximilian II grants his subjects the right to freedom of religion, as a result of which most of the Austrians convert to Protestantism
In 1576, the eldest son of Maximilian, Rudolf II, having become emperor, begins the counter-reformation, which leads to the return of most of those who left to the Protestants in the bosom of the Catholic Church, sometimes not without coercion. Religious intolerance was the cause of the Thirty Years' War, which devastated all of Central Europe. In 1645, the army of Protestant Sweden proceeded to the walls of Vienna, but this time the city was not damaged either. Then, bloodless by the war, internal religious strife between Catholics and Evangelical Protestants, Vienna could hardly resist the onslaught of a strong enemy. In this desperate situation, Kaiser Ferdinand III calls on the church for help. The Kaiser himself swears an oath to erect a column in honor of the Virgin Mary if the city is saved from enemy troops. The story of the siege ends with the fact that, without even trying to storm the city, the commander of the Swedish army, Torstensson, orders the withdrawal of troops
In 1646, the monument promised by the Kaiser was built on the central square of Vienna and adorned it with itself until 1667, when it was dismantled at the direction of Kaiser Leopold I, son of Ferdinand, and transported to the city of Wernstein, where it is located to this day. The place of the original on the square was taken by a bronze copy. In 1648, the Treaty of Westphalia was signed, according to which Austria ceded part of its territories to France
The Austrian capital was miraculously lucky again when in 1683, engulfed in a terrible plague epidemic, it was ready to capitulate to the troops of the Turks, but the armies of friendly Christian powers, Germany and Poland, arrived in time, and the enemy forces were first pushed back from Vienna, and then and still further - to the south-eastern limits of Europe. The memory of the defeat of the Turkish troops is kept by frescoes and sculptural compositions made in the Baroque style and decorating the buildings of that era in many cities of Austria.
With the death of Charles II, the last of the Habsburgs on the Spanish line, Austria is drawn into the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), which ended with the fact that Charles IV, the Austrian emperor, got only part of the Spanish possessions (in the Netherlands and Italy). Karl brings to the dispute his daughter, Maria Theresa, who, in the absence of male heirs, ascends in 1740 to the Habsburg throne. The support of Britain and the Netherlands largely contributed to the success of Austria and her empress in the struggle for political leadership on the continent - the rich lands of Bavaria are moving to the empire
During Seven Years' War(1756-1763) there is a change of political sympathies, and Austria, already with the confrontation of Britain, is trying unsuccessfully to recapture Silesia from Prussia
The 40-year reign of Empress Maria Theresa is considered the golden era in the history of Austria. It was during this period that the strong power of the center was established, the institution of the civil service was introduced, the economy, the army and the general education system were reformed. Since that time, Austria has been gaining fame as the “country of great musicians”
Maria Theresa left a good memory of herself, showing extraordinary courage during the smallpox epidemic in 1763: the empress, who lost her two children, at the risk of becoming infected, looked after her sick daughter-in-law
Maria Theresa's work was continued by her son Joseph II, whose innovations include the edict of religious tolerance, the secularization of church property, and the abolition of serfdom.
Under Emperor Franz, the first national anthem was adopted, composed by Joseph Haydn and performed on February 12, 1797 (according to the plan, the adoption of the anthem was to rally the nation in the face of the impending danger from France and Napoleon). The anthem is based on the Croatian folk melody of Burgenland
The sunset of the golden age for Austria turned out to be the appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte on the arena of the European theater. His triumph, military successes forced Franz II to renounce first the Austrian, and then the German imperial crown and the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Military spending led to a financial collapse, and it is not known how it would have ended for Austria if not for Russia's help.
In 1814-1815. a congress is held in Vienna, according to the decisions of which Austria regains part of the lost
The era of the reign of Chancellor Clemens von Mitternich, the restoration of the monarchy, the formation of Austria-Hungary in 1867, the establishment of general suffrage are accompanied by a new take-off in the development of culture and art, especially music
On June 28, 1914, an attempt was made on the life of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo; a month later, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia
November 12, 1918 - the date that marks the proclamation of Austria as a republic, and with it the end of the centuries-old Habsburg dynasty. According to the peace treaty of September 10, 1919, Austria is forced to recognize the state independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and Yugoslavia. Austria is losing its influence in neighboring Romania and Bulgaria. All this together caused a serious economic crisis that lasted in Austria until the mid-1920s and was accompanied by a shortage of material food resources. Gradually, and thanks to the successful actions of the federal government, the situation stabilized
Austria entered the Second World War even before it began: on March 11, 1938, the troops of neighboring Germany marched through the streets of Vienna, and an Austrian by birth, who had recently left the country as a failed, unrecognized artist, Adolf Hitler was met with triumph on the main square of Vienna - - Heldenplatz. Seven years will pass before the liberation of Austria by the allied forces. On April 11, 1945, Soviet tanks would be the first to enter Vienna. At the end of the war, Austria and Vienna, as a special district, were divided into four areas of responsibility. On May 15, 1955, in the Belvedere Palace, a state treaty was signed between the victorious countries and Austria, proclaiming the political neutrality of Austria, and the allied troops were withdrawn beyond its borders
The times of the Cold War brought diplomatic prominence to Austria, its capital, Vienna. Representative offices of the largest international organizations, including the UN, have settled here. The country's economy developed successfully.
AUSTRIA. STORY
Initially, Austria was called a small principality in the middle reaches of the Danube, approximately coinciding with the territory of the present-day land of Lower Austria. Upper Austria included the area west of the Enns River, extending to Bavaria and the Czech Republic, and south to the lands of Salzburg and Styria. In 1804, all the lands that were in the possession of the Habsburg dynasty were called the Austrian Empire. In 1867, in accordance with an agreement between Vienna and the Hungarian leaders, the name "Austrian Empire" was used exclusively for the non-Hungarian part of the Habsburg lands. However, many writers continued to equate Austria with the dualistic monarchy, Austria-Hungary. After the collapse of the Habsburg Empire at the end of the First World War, the federal republic of Austria arose, occupying the current territory of the country. This new state was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938. In 1945 Austria was liberated by Soviet, American and British troops and the Second Republic was born. In 1955 Austria regained sovereignty and independence. Initially, Austria was a remote outskirts of the possessions of Charlemagne. The word itself comes from the name of the territory that served as the eastern defensive rampart of the Carolingian possessions in the middle reaches of the Danube. As a territorial unit, it arose ca. 800 AD to defend against barbarians attacking from the east. It was called the Eastern Mark, or Ostarriki (Austria). The Eastern (Austrian) Carolingian brand was not the only one, similar names were found in other parts of Europe; the word "Austria" was used where any territory was divided into eastern and western regions.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEDIEVAL STATE
Very little is known about the first inhabitants of Austria. Scant historical evidence suggests the existence of a pre-Celtic population. Around 400-300 B.C. militant Celtic tribes appeared with their own dialect, religious cults and traditions. Mixing with the ancient inhabitants, the Celts formed the kingdom of Norik.
Roman era. At the beginning of the 2nd c. BC. Roman power extended to the Danube. However, the Romans were forced to constantly fight against the nomadic Germanic barbarians who invaded from the north across the Danube, which served as the border of Roman civilization. The Romans built fortified military camps at Vindobona (Vienna) and at Carnunte, 48 km from the first; in the Hoher Markt district of Vienna, remains of Roman buildings have been preserved. In the region of the middle Danube, the Romans contributed to the development of cities, crafts, trade and the ore industry, built roads and buildings. Emperor Marcus Aurelius (died at Vindobona 180 AD) composed part of his immortal Meditations at Carnuntum. The Romans implanted among the local population pagan religious rites, secular institutions and customs, the Latin language and literature. By the 4th c. is the Christianization of this region. In the 5th and 6th centuries Germanic tribes overran most of the Roman possessions in the western part of modern Austria. Turkic-speaking nomads - the Avars - invaded the eastern and southern parts of modern Austria, along with them (or after them) the Slavic peoples migrated - the future Slovenes, Croats and Czechs, among whom the Avars disappeared. In the western regions, missionaries (Irish, Franks, Angles) converted pagan Germans (Bavarians) to Christianity; The cities of Salzburg and Passau became the centers of Christian culture. Approximately in 774 a cathedral was built in Salzburg, and by the end of the 8th century. the local archbishop was given authority over neighboring dioceses. Monasteries were built (for example, Kremsmünster), and the conversion of the Slavs to Christianity began from these islands of civilization.
The invasion of the Hungarians in the Eastern March. Charlemagne (742-814) defeated the Avars and began to encourage the German colonization of the Eastern March. German settlers received privileges: they were given land allotments, which were processed by slaves. Cities on the Middle Danube flourished again. Frankish rule in Austria ended abruptly. The Carolingian Empire was ruthlessly devastated by the Hungarians. These warlike tribes were destined to have a lasting and profound influence on the life of the middle part of the Danube valley. In 907, the Hungarians captured the Eastern March and from here carried out bloody raids on Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine. Otto I, German emperor and founder of the Holy Roman Empire (962), defeated a powerful Hungarian army in 955 on the Lech River near Augsburg. Pushed east, the Hungarians gradually settled downstream in the fertile Hungarian Plain (where their descendants still live) and adopted the Christian faith.
Babenberg rule. The place of the expelled Hungarians was taken by German settlers. The Bavarian Eastern Mark, which at that time covered the area around Vienna, was transferred in 976 as a fief to the Babenberg family, whose family possessions were located in the Main valley in Germany. In 996, the territory of the Eastern March was first named Ostarriki. One of the prominent representatives of the Babenberg dynasty was the macrograve Leopold III (reigned 1095-1136). The ruins of his castle on the Leopoldsberg mountain near Vienna have been preserved. Nearby is the monastery of Klosterneuburg and the majestic Cistercian abbey in Heiligenstadt, the burial place of the Austrian rulers. The monks in these monasteries cultivated the fields, taught the children, wrote chronicles and looked after the sick, greatly contributing to the enlightenment of the surrounding population. German settlers completed the development of the Eastern Mark. The methods of cultivating the land and growing grapes were improved, and new villages were founded. Many castles were built along the Danube and inland, such as Dürnstein and Aggstein. During the period of the Crusades, the cities prospered, and the wealth of the rulers grew. In 1156 the emperor conferred the title of duke on Henry II, Margrave of Austria. The land of Styria, south of Austria, was inherited by the Babenbergs (1192), and parts of Upper Austria and Krotna were acquired in 1229. Austria entered its heyday during the reign of Duke Leopold VI, who died in 1230, having become famous as a merciless fighter against heretics and Muslims. Monasteries were showered with generous gifts; the newly created monastic orders, the Franciscans and Dominicans, were cordially received in the duchy, and poets and singers were encouraged. Vienna, which had been in decline for a long time, in 1146 became the residence of the duke; great benefit was derived from the development of trade through the Crusades. In 1189 it was first mentioned as a civitas (city), in 1221 it received city rights and in 1244 it confirmed them, having received formal city privileges that determined the rights and obligations of citizens, regulated the activities of foreign merchants and provided for the formation of a city council. In 1234, a more humane and enlightened law on their rights was issued for the Jewish residents than in other places, which remained in force until the expulsion of the Jews from Vienna almost 200 years later. At the beginning of the 13th c. the boundaries of the city were expanded, new fortifications arose.
The Babenberg dynasty died out in 1246 when Duke Frederick II died in battle with the Hungarians, leaving no heirs. The struggle for Austria began - an economically and strategically important territory.
Rise of the Habsburgs
Strengthening of the Austrian state. The Pope handed over the vacant throne of the duchy to Margrave Hermann of Baden (reigned 1247-1250). However, the Austrian bishops and the feudal nobility elected the Czech king Přemysl II (Otakar) (1230-1278) (1230-1278) as duke, who reinforced his rights to the Austrian throne by marrying the sister of the last Babenberg. Přemysl captured Styria and received Carinthia and part of Carniola by marriage contract. Premysl sought the crown of the Holy Roman Empire, but on September 29, 1273, Count Rudolph of Habsburg (1218-1291), respected both for his political prudence and for his ability to avoid disputes with the papacy, was elected king. Přemysl refused to recognize his election, so Rudolph resorted to force and defeated his rival. In 1282 - one of the key dates in Austrian history - Rudolph declared the lands of Austria belonging to him to be hereditary possession of the House of Habsburg. From the very beginning, the Habsburgs considered their lands to be private property. Despite the struggle for the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and family strife, the dukes from the house of Habsburg continued to expand the boundaries of their possessions. An attempt had already been made to annex the land of Vorarlberg in the southwest to it, but this was only completed by 1523. Tyrol was annexed to the possessions of the Habsburgs in 1363, as a result of which the Duchy of Austria came close to the Apennine Peninsula. In 1374 a part of Istria was attached to the northern tip of the Adriatic Sea, and 8 years later the port of Trieste voluntarily joined Austria in order to free itself from the rule of the Venetians. Representative (estate) assemblies were created, consisting of nobles, clergy and townspeople. Duke Rudolf IV (reigned 1358-1365) made plans to annex the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary to his possessions and dreamed of achieving complete independence from the Holy Roman Empire. Rudolph founded the University of Vienna (1365), financed the expansion of the Cathedral of St. Stephen and supported trade and crafts. He died suddenly, without realizing his ambitious plans. Under Rudolf IV, the Habsburgs began to bear the title of archdukes (1359).
Austrian Economy in the Renaissance. In peaceful periods, trade flourished with neighboring principalities and even with distant Russia. Goods were transported to Hungary, the Czech Republic and Germany along the Danube; in terms of volume, this trade was comparable to trade along the great Rhine route. Trade developed with Venice and other northern Italian cities. Roads were improved, making it easier to transport goods. Germany served as a profitable market for Austrian wines and grains, Hungary bought textiles. Iron household products were exported to Hungary. In turn, Austria bought Hungarian livestock and minerals. In the Salzkammergut (Lower Austrian Eastern Alps) a large amount of table salt was mined. Domestic needs for most products, except for clothing, were provided by domestic manufacturers. Craftsmen of the same specialty, united in a guild, often settled in certain urban areas, as evidenced by the names of streets in the old corners of Vienna. Wealthy members of the guilds not only controlled the affairs of their industry, but also participated in the management of the city.
Political successes of the Habsburgs. Friedrich III. With the election of Duke Albrecht V as German king in 1438 (under the name of Albrecht II), the prestige of the Habsburgs reached its apogee. By marrying the heiress to the royal throne of Bohemia and Hungary, Albrecht increased the possessions of the dynasty. Nevertheless, his power in Bohemia remained nominal, and soon both crowns were lost to the Habsburgs. The duke died on the way to the place of the battle with the Turks, and during the reign of his son Vladislav, the possessions of the Habsburgs were significantly reduced. After the death of Vladislav, the connection with the Czech Republic and Hungary was completely severed, and Austria itself was divided among the heirs. In 1452 Albrecht V's uncle Frederick V (1415-1493) was crowned Holy Roman Emperor under the name Frederick III. In 1453 he became Archduke of Austria, and from that time until the formal liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 (not counting a short period in the 18th century), the Habsburgs retained the imperial crown. Despite the endless wars, as well as the rebellions of the nobles and residents of Vienna, Frederick III managed to expand his possessions by annexing part of Istria and the port of Rijeka (1471). Frederick believed that the Habsburg dynasty was destined to conquer the whole world. His motto was the formula "AEIOU" (Alles Erdreich ist sterreich untertan, "The whole land is subject to Austria"). He inscribed this abbreviation on books and ordered it to be carved on public buildings. Frederick married his son and heir Maximilian (1459-1519) to Mary of Burgundy. As a dowry, the Habsburgs got the Netherlands and lands in what is now France. During this period, the rivalry between the Austrian Habsburgs and the French kingdom began, which continued until the 18th century. Maximilian I (king in 1486, emperor in 1508), who is sometimes considered the second collector of the Habsburg possessions, acquired, in addition to possessions in Burgundy, the regions of Goroitia and Gradisca d'Isonzo and small territories in the southern parts of modern Austria. He entered into an agreement with the Czech-Hungarian the king to transfer the Czech-Hungarian crown to Maximilian in the event that Vladislav II died without a male heir.Through skillful alliances, successful inheritance and profitable marriages, the Habsburg family achieved impressive power.Maximilian found excellent parties for his son Philip and his grandson Ferdinand The former married Juan, heiress of Spain with its vast empire, whose son, Emperor Charles V, had dominion greater than that of any other European monarch before or after him. Maximilian arranged for Ferdinand to marry the heiress of Vladislav, King of Bohemia and Hungary. His marriage policy was motivated by dynastic ambitions, but also by a desire to turn Danubian Europe into a cohesive Christian bulwark against Islam. However, the apathy of the people in the face of the Muslim threat made this task difficult. Along with minor reforms in administration, Maximilian encouraged innovations in the military field, which foreshadowed the creation of a standing regular army in place of the military aristocracy of warrior knights. Expensive marriage contracts, financial turmoil and military spending emptied the state treasury, and Maximilian resorted to large loans, mainly from the wealthy Fugger magnates of Augsburg. In return, they received mining concessions in Tyrol and other areas. Funds were taken from the same source to bribe the votes of the electors of the Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian was a typical Renaissance sovereign. He patronized literature and education, supported scholars and artists such as Konrad Peutinger, a humanist from Augsburg and a specialist in Roman antiquities, and the German artist Albrecht Dürer, who, in particular, illustrated books written by the emperor. Other Habsburg rulers and the aristocracy encouraged the fine arts and amassed rich collections of paintings and sculptures that later became the pride of Austria. In 1519, Maximilian's grandson Charles was elected king, and in 1530 became Holy Roman Emperor under the name of Charles V. Charles ruled the empire, Austria, Bohemia, the Netherlands, Spain and the Spanish overseas possessions. In 1521 he made his brother, Archduke Ferdinand, ruler of the Danube lands of the Habsburgs, which included Austria proper, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and Tyrol.
Accession of the Czech Republic and Hungary. In 1526 the troops of Suleiman the Magnificent invaded Hungary. Civil strife within the ruling class of the country facilitated the victory of the Turks, and on August 29 the flower of the Hungarian cavalry was destroyed on the Mohacs field, and the capital Buda capitulated. The young king Louis II, who fled after the defeat at Mohacs, died. After his death, the Czech Republic (with Moravia and Silesia) and Western Hungary went to the Habsburgs. Until then, the inhabitants of the Habsburg dominions spoke almost exclusively German, except for the population of small Slavic enclaves. However, after the accession of Hungary and the Czech Republic, the Danube State became a very heterogeneous state in terms of population. This happened just at the time when mono-national states were taking shape in the west of Europe. The Czech Republic and Hungary had their own brilliant past, their own national saints and heroes, traditions and languages. Each of these countries also had its own national estate and provincial diets, which were dominated by wealthy magnates and the clergy, but there were much fewer nobles and townspeople. Royal power was more nominal than real. The Habsburg Empire included many peoples - Hungarians, Slovaks, Czechs, Serbs, Germans, Ukrainians and Romanians. The court in Vienna undertook a series of measures to integrate Bohemia and Hungary into the Habsburg ancestral domains. The central government departments were reorganized to meet the needs of an expanding power. A prominent role began to be played by the palace office and the secret council, which advised the emperor mainly on issues of international politics and legislation. The first steps were taken to replace the tradition of electing monarchs in both countries with Habsburg hereditary law.
Turkish invasion. Only the threat of Turkish conquest helped to rally Austria, Hungary and the Czech Republic. The 200,000-strong army of Suleiman advanced along the wide valley of the Danube and in 1529 approached the walls of Vienna. A month later, the garrison and the inhabitants of Vienna forced the Turks to lift the siege and retreat to Hungary. But the wars between the Austrian and Ottoman empires continued intermittently for two generations; and almost two centuries passed until the armies of the Habsburgs completely expelled the Turks from historical Hungary.
The rise and fall of Protestantism. The area of residence of the Hungarians became the center for the spread of reformed Christianity on the Danube. Many landlords and peasants in Hungary adopted Calvinism and Lutheranism. Luther's teachings attracted many German-speaking townspeople; in Transylvania, the Unitarian movement aroused wide sympathy. In the eastern part of the Hungarian proper lands, Calvinism prevailed, and Lutheranism became widespread among part of the Slovaks and Germans. In that part of Hungary which fell under Habsburg control, Protestantism ran into considerable resistance from the Catholics. The court in Vienna, which highly valued the importance of Catholicism in maintaining the absolute power of the king, proclaimed it the official religion of Hungary. Protestants were required to pay money to maintain Catholic religious institutions and for a long time were not allowed to hold public office. The Reformation spread surprisingly quickly in Austria itself. The newly invented printing allowed both opposing religious camps to publish and distribute books and pamphlets. Princes and priests often fought for power under religious banners. A large number of believers in Austria left the Catholic Church; the ideas of the Reformation were proclaimed in the Cathedral of St. Stephen in Vienna and even in the family chapel of the ruling dynasty. Anabaptist groups (such as the Mennonites) then spread to Tyrol and Moravia. By the middle of the 16th century. the clear majority of the Austrian population seemed to have embraced Protestantism in one form or another. However, there were three powerful factors that not only restrained the spread of the Reformation, but also contributed to the return of a large part of the neophytes to the bosom of the Roman Catholic Church: the internal church reform proclaimed by the Council of Trent; the Society of Jesus (Jesuit Order), whose members, as confessors, teachers and preachers, concentrated their activities on converting the families of large landowners to this faith, correctly calculating that their peasants would then follow the faith of their masters; and physical coercion carried out by the Viennese court. The conflicts culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), which began in Bohemia, where Protestantism was deeply rooted. In 1606-1609, Rudolf II guaranteed freedom of religion to Czech Protestants by a series of agreements. But when Ferdinand II (reigned 1619-1637) became emperor, the Protestants in Bohemia felt their religious and civil rights threatened. The zealous Catholic and authoritarian ruler Ferdinand II, a prominent representative of the Counter-Reformation, ordered the suppression of Protestantism in Austria itself.
Thirty Years' War. In 1619, the Czech Diet refused to recognize Ferdinand as emperor and elected Elector Frederick V, Count Palatine of the Rhine, as king. This demarche led to the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. The rebels, who disagreed on all the most important issues, were bound only by hatred of the Habsburgs. With the help of mercenaries from Germany, the Habsburg army utterly defeated the Czech rebels in 1620 at the Battle of Belaya Gora near Prague. The Czech crown was once and for all assigned to the house of Habsburg, the Sejm was dispersed, and Catholicism was declared the only legal faith. The estates of Czech Protestant aristocrats, which occupied almost half of the territory of the Czech Republic, were divided among the younger sons of the Catholic nobility of Europe, mostly of German origin. Until the collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1918, the Czech aristocracy spoke predominantly German and was devoted to the ruling dynasty. During the Thirty Years' War, the population of the Habsburg Empire suffered huge losses. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) put an end to the massacre, according to which the Holy Roman Empire, which included Germany and Italy, actually ceased to exist, and many princes who owned its lands were able to fulfill their old dream of independence from the power of the emperor. However, the Habsburgs still retained the imperial crown and influence over German state affairs.
victory over the Turks. In the second half of the 17th century. Ottoman armies resumed the onslaught on Europe. The Austrians fought the Turks for control of the lower reaches of the Danube and Sava rivers. In 1683, a huge Turkish army, taking advantage of the uprising in Hungary, again besieged Vienna for two months, and again caused great damage to its suburbs. The city overflowed with refugees, artillery shelling caused damage to the Cathedral of St. Stephen and other architectural monuments. The besieged city was saved by the Polish-German army under the command of the Polish king Jan Sobieski. On September 12, 1683, after a fierce skirmish, the Turks withdrew and never returned to the walls of Vienna. From that moment on, the Turks began to gradually lose their positions, and the Habsburgs derived more and more new benefits from their victories. When in 1687 most of Hungary, with Buda as its capital, was liberated from Turkish rule, the Hungarian Sejm, in gratitude, recognized the hereditary right of the Habsburg male line to the Hungarian crown. However, at the same time, it was stipulated that before accession to the throne, the new king had to confirm all the "traditions, privileges and prerogatives" of the Hungarian nation. The war against the Turks continued. Austrian troops recaptured almost all of Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania and most of Slovenia, which was officially secured by the Peace of Karlowitz (1699). Then the Habsburgs turned their eyes to the Balkans, and in 1717 the Austrian commander Prince Eugene of Savoy captured Belgrade and invaded Serbia. The Sultan was forced to cede to the Habsburgs a small Serbian region around Belgrade and a number of other small territories. After 20 years, the Balkan territory was again captured by the Turks; The Danube and the Sava became the border between the two great powers. Hungary, which was under the rule of Vienna, was devastated, its population decreased. Vast tracts of land were given to nobles loyal to the Habsburgs. Hungarian peasants moved to free lands, and foreign settlers invited by the crown - Serbs, Romanians and, above all, German Catholics - settled in the southern regions of the country. According to estimates, in 1720 the Hungarians made up less than 45% of the population of Hungary, and in the 18th century. their share continued to decline. Transylvania retained a special political status under the administration from Vienna. Although the Hungarian constitutional privileges and local government were not affected, and the tax benefits of the aristocracy were confirmed, the Habsburg court was able to impose its will on the Hungarian ruling elite. The aristocracy, whose landholdings grew with their allegiance to the crown, remained loyal to the Habsburgs.
AUSTRIA AT 1500-1700
During periods of revolts and strife in the 16th and 17th centuries. more than once it seemed that the multinational state of the Habsburgs was on the verge of imminent collapse. Nevertheless, the Viennese court continued to encourage the development of education and the arts. Important milestones in intellectual life were the founding of universities in Graz (1585), Salzburg (1623), Budapest (1635) and Innsbruck (1677).
military successes. In Austria, a regular army was created, equipped with firearms. Although gunpowder was first used in war in the 14th century, it took 300 years for guns and artillery to turn into truly formidable weapons. Artillery pieces made of iron or bronze were so heavy that at least 10 horses or 40 oxen had to be harnessed to move them. To protect against bullets, armor was needed, burdensome for both people and horses. Fortress walls were made thicker in order to withstand artillery fire. The disregard for the infantry gradually disappeared, and the cavalry, although reduced in numbers, lost little of its former prestige. Military operations largely began to be reduced to the siege of fortified cities, which required a lot of manpower and equipment. Prince Eugene of Savoy rebuilt the armed forces along the lines of the army of France, where he received his military education. Food was improved, troops were housed in barracks, veterans were given land reclaimed from the Turks. Nevertheless, the reform was soon obstructed by aristocrats from the Austrian military command. The changes were not deep enough to allow Austria to win against Prussia in the 18th century. For generations, however, the Habsburgs' armed forces and bureaucracy provided the stronghold they needed to maintain the integrity of the multinational state.
Economic situation. The backbone of the Austrian economy was Agriculture, but at the same time there was an increase in manufacturing production and finance capital. In the 16th century the country's industry several times experienced a crisis due to inflation caused by the import of precious metals into Europe from America. At this time, the crown no longer had to turn to usurers for financial assistance, now the state loan became the source of funds. In sufficient quantities for the market, iron was mined in Styria and silver in Tyrol; to a lesser extent - coal in Silesia.
architectural masterpieces. After the feeling of the Turkish threat disappeared, intensive construction began in the cities of the Habsburg Empire. Masters from Italy trained local designers and builders of churches and palaces. In Prague, Salzburg, and especially in Vienna, baroque buildings were erected - elegant, elegant, with rich exterior and interior decoration. Luxuriously decorated facades, wide staircases and luxurious gardens became characteristic features of the city residences of the Austrian aristocracy. Among them stood out the magnificent Belvedere Palace with a park built by Prince Eugene of Savoy. The ancient seat of the court in Vienna, the Hofburg, was enlarged and decorated. The chancellery of the court, the huge Karlskirche church, which took 20 years to build, and the imperial summer palace and park in Schönbrunn are just the most striking buildings in the city, which shone with its architectural splendor. Churches and monasteries damaged or destroyed during the war were restored throughout the monarchy. The Benedictine monastery in Melk, perched on a cliff above the Danube, is a typical baroque example in rural Austria and a symbol of the triumph of the Counter-Reformation.
Rise of Vienna. Vienna, which finally became an archbishopric, was the center of Catholic Germany and the capital of the Habsburg state. Artists and merchants flocked to the city from all over Austria, from the Czech Republic and Hungary, from Spain and the Netherlands, from Italy and southern Germany.
The court and the aristocracy encouraged the development of the theatre,
fine arts and music. Along with popular theatrical performances, Italian-style opera flourished. The emperor himself wrote operas in which the archduchess played. The local folk music that made Vienna famous all over the world originated in the city's taverns, haunts for singers and musicians. During this period, the foundations were laid for what made the Habsburg residence the musical capital of Europe.
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
Throughout the 1700s, Austria experienced severe military trials, achieved new heights of power and prestige, and achieved significant cultural advances. At first, the prospects for development did not seem bright at all. Luck turned away from Emperor Charles VI (reigned 1711-1740). With no male heirs, he feared that the multi-ethnic state after his death would plunge into internal conflicts or be dismembered by foreign powers. To avoid this, the court entered into negotiations with the landed diets and foreign states in order to achieve recognition as the heir to the throne of Charles's daughter, Maria Theresa. These efforts were initially successful. The official document, known as the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, provided that all Habsburg possessions would remain indivisible for all time and be transferred by seniority. However, when approving this decision, the diets of the Czech Republic and the Hungarian lands made it clear that if the Habsburg dynasty fades away, they will be able to choose another ruling house.
Empress Maria Theresa (reigned 1740-1780). In accordance with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, Maria Theresa ascended the Austrian throne (1740). A heavy burden of responsibility fell on the shoulders of the 23-year-old empress. King Frederick II of Prussia immediately laid claim to most of the prosperous province of Silesia, which was part of the Czech kingdom. The Prussian monarch did not recognize the rights of Maria Theresa to the inheritance of Charles VI and announced his intention to free half of the Silesian population, who professed Protestantism, from Catholic Austria. The King of Prussia attacked Silesia without any formal pretext or declaration of war, contrary to accepted international norms. Thus began a long struggle between Prussia and Austria for dominance in Central Europe, which ended with the final military defeat of Austria in 1866. France and a number of small German principalities took part in the attack on the possessions of the Habsburgs, seeking to expand their possessions. Unprepared for war and worse armed, Austria easily succumbed to the onslaught of the enemy. At times it seemed that the monarchy was disintegrating. Stubborn and courageous, Maria Theresa took a decisive step, turning to her Hungarian subjects for help. In response to promises of real concessions, the Hungarian magnates demonstrated their loyalty, but their help was insufficient. In 1742 most of Silesia went to Prussia. Despite repeated attempts by Austria to regain the lost province, Prussia owned the land until the end of World War II. In an effort to improve the international position of the country, the empress entered into dynastic marriages of her children (those of 16 who had reached maturity). So, Marie Antoinette became the bride of the heir to the throne of France, the future King Louis XVI. Due to the turbulent political events in Europe, Austria made a number of territorial acquisitions. At the beginning of the century, the Spanish Netherlands (now Belgium) were annexed, which remained a kind of colony until 1797. Wealthy provinces in Italy were acquired: Tuscany, most of Lombardy, Naples, Parma and Sardinia (the last three were held by Austria for a short time). Largely contrary to the moral convictions of Maria Theresa, although in accordance with the wishes of her son Joseph, Austria joined Russia and Prussia in the first partition of Poland (1772) and received the principalities of Auschwitz and Zatorsky, the southern part of the Krakow and Sandomierz voivodships, Russian (without the Kholm land ) and Belz Voivodeship. About a million people lived in this territory, there were fertile lands and salt mines. 23 years later, another part of Poland, with its ancient capital Krakow, came under Austrian rule. Claims were also made to the northern part of the Principality of Moldavia, southeast of Galicia. This area was controlled by the Turks; in 1775 it was incorporated into the Habsburg state under the name of Bukovina.
Internal reforms. Measures were taken to improve the mechanism of public administration in Austria and the Czech Republic, strengthen the unity and stability of the provinces, overcome chronic financial deficits and improve the state of the economy as a whole. In all these areas, Prussia served as a model and an inspiring example. In Austria, it was considered that modernization would increase the military power of the state, confirm Austria's claims to the status of a great power and prepare the way for the weakening of the power of King Frederick of Prussia. The Austrian armed forces, public administration and tax system were completely restructured. The central place in the reorganization of state power was occupied by the State Council, which had advisory functions and consisted of specialists from each of the departments of internal affairs. A new supreme court was created and the judiciary was separated from the public administration system. In accordance with the trends characteristic of the Enlightenment, new codes of laws were issued. The foreign policy and military departments were radically updated. Military spending increased, a centralized recruitment was introduced. The more complex organization of the armed forces required the involvement of more civilian workers. To increase the effectiveness of public administration and ensure centralization, the contingent of civil servants in Vienna and in the provinces was expanded; now they were drawn from the middle class. In the hereditary lands of the crown and in Bohemia, the local councils lost a number of important functions, and the officials of the crown were given a wide range of powers, ranging from supervision of serfs to jurisdiction in matters of police and education. The reforms also affected the countryside. According to the so-called. corvee patents (1771-1778), the corvee of the peasants was limited to three days a week. In the economic sphere, the development of manufactory production was encouraged. Despite the resistance of traditional guild associations, new, modern industrial enterprises were created. Hungary was to serve as a market for industrial products from Austria and as a breadbasket for the Austrian cities. A general income tax and a unified system of border and internal duties were introduced. In order to expand international trade, a small merchant fleet was created, and ports in Trieste and Rijeka were modernized. There were companies that carried out trade relations with South Asia.
enlightened despotism. Maria Theresa's son, Joseph II, who became his mother's co-ruler after 1765, often entered into disputes with her on matters of public policy. In 1780 he took the reins of government into his own hands. The new emperor sought to strengthen the power of Austria and its unity, to improve the system of state administration. He was convinced that the personal power of the sovereign should be unlimited and that he should inculcate the spirit of a common homeland into the consciousness of the peoples inhabiting the country. Decrees were issued declaring German the official language, which made it possible to unify the sphere of public administration and speed up judicial procedures. The powers of the Hungarian Sejm were curtailed, and soon he ceased his activities altogether. Demonstrating enlightenment and good will, Joseph II proclaimed the equality of all subjects before the court and in the collection of taxes. Print and theater censorship was temporarily relaxed. The amount of dues paid by peasants was now regulated by crown officials, and the amount of taxes levied depended on income from the land. Although Joseph II declared himself the defender of Catholicism, he waged a vigorous struggle against the power of the Pope. In fact, he sought to turn the church in his possessions into an instrument of the state, independent of Rome. The clergy were deprived of their tithes and were forced to study in seminaries under state control, and the archbishops were required to officially take an oath of loyalty to the crown. Ecclesiastical courts were abolished, marriage began to be regarded as a civil contract, outside the competence of the church. The number of religious holidays was reduced, and the decoration of religious buildings was regulated by the state. Approximately one in three of the monasteries was closed. Joseph II issued a decree on universal and compulsory schooling. Funds for education were to be allocated by the nobility and local authorities. Although this measure was not fully implemented, school attendance increased significantly. Joseph II died untimely in 1790. His brother, Leopold II, who had a good reputation as the ruler of Italian Tuscany, quickly restored the shaken order. Serfdom in Hungary was restored, and in Austria the peasant, although he remained personally free, fell into an even more difficult dependence on the landowner. The Hungarian Diet, which had not convened under Joseph II, was reconvened and confirmed the old freedoms and constitutional rights of the kingdom. Leopold II also made a number of political concessions to the Czech Republic and was crowned as the Czech king. In order to enlist the support of the Czech educated class, in which a sense of national identity was awakening, a department of the Czech language was established at the University of Prague.
Achievements in the field of culture. By decree of Joseph II, the "Palace Theater" (founded by Maria Theresa in 1741) was renamed in 1776 into the "Court National Theater" ("Burgtheater"), which retained a high level of performance until the 20th century. Vienna was famous for its musical culture, the tone was set by the Italians. In 1729, Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi) arrived in Vienna, taking the position of court poet and librettist, he wrote texts for operas by the Neapolitan Niccolo Jommelli and Christoph von Gluck. The great composers Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart worked in Vienna, representatives of the so-called. Viennese classical school. Melody from string quartet op. 76 No. 3 formed the basis of the Austrian national anthem (1797), and then the German anthem.
THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC WARS
Like all of Europe, Austria experienced the consequences of the French Revolution and the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte. The thirst for territorial conquest, dynastic kinship with the French Queen Marie Antoinette, sister of Joseph II and Leopold II, fear that the ideas of the French Revolution would influence the various peoples of the monarchy, the growth of patriotism, especially among the German-speaking population - the combination of all these diverse tendencies and motives made Austria irreconcilable enemy of France.
Wars against France. Military operations against France began in 1792 and continued intermittently until the autumn of 1815. More than once during this time, the Austrian armies were defeated, twice Napoleon's grenadiers stormed the famous Vienna, which in terms of population (about 230 thousand people) in Europe was second only to London and Paris. The Habsburg army suffered great losses, the suffering and hardships of the inhabitants of large and small cities are comparable to the hardships experienced in the world wars of the 20th century. Galloping inflation, the collapse of the tax system and chaos in the economy brought the state to the brink of disaster. More than once Napoleon dictated terms of peace to Austria. Emperor Franz I was forced to marry his daughter Maria Louise to Napoleon (1810), whom he had previously called the "French adventurer". The peasants of Tyrol, led by the innkeeper Andreas Gofer, revolted and resisted the Napoleonic troops. The Austrian troops inflicted a severe defeat on the French near Aspern near Vienna (1809), but were defeated by Napoleon a few days later at Wagram. The Austrian army was commanded by Archduke Karl, whose military glory rivaled that of Prince Eugene of Savoy: their equestrian statues adorn the Heldenplatz ("Heroes' Square") in the center of Vienna. Austrian field marshal Karl Schwarzenberg commanded the Allied forces, which in 1813 defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig.
Austrian Empire. Franz I in 1804 appropriated the name of the Austrian Empire to his state. By the will of Napoleon, the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, whose crown had actually been inherited in the Habsburg family for almost four centuries, ceased to exist (1806).
Congress of Vienna. The territorial changes in Europe made during the era of Napoleon also affected Austria. It is significant that the international congress, which laid the foundations for a peaceful order after the overthrow of Bonaparte, was convened in Vienna. For several months in 1814-1815, the capital of the Habsburgs was a meeting place for politicians of the highest rank of large and small European states. A widely branched network of Austrian spies followed the arriving high-ranking persons. The Vienna debate was chaired by Count (later Prince) Clemens Metternich, Foreign Minister and later Chancellor of Austria. At the congress, he successfully secured a secure position in Europe for the House of Habsburg and prevented Russia from extending its influence to the central part of the continent. Austria was forced to abandon Belgium, but received substantial compensation for this. Dalmatia, the western part of Istria, the islands in the Adriatic that previously belonged to Venice, the former Venetian Republic itself and the neighboring Italian province of Lombardy passed under the scepter of Vienna. Representatives of the Habsburg family received the crowns of Tuscany, Parma and Modena. Austria enjoyed strong influence in the Papal States and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. As a result, the Apennine peninsula actually turned into an appendage of the Danubian monarchy. A significant part of Polish Galicia was returned to Austria, and in 1846 the small Republic of Krakow was annexed, the only free area of Poland preserved by peacekeepers in 1815. Opinions on the form of the future German statehood were sharply divided. Metternich managed to prevent the creation of a lasting alliance, and a loose confederation, the German Confederation, was formed. It covered the German-speaking states of Europe and that part of Austria that was part of the abolished Holy Roman Empire. Austria received the post of permanent chairman of the confederation.
THE ERA OF METTERNICH
Franz I and Metternich. During the first half of the 19th century. the leading figure in the public life of Austria was Emperor Franz I. As the chancellor of the empire, Metternich had significant political weight. After the excesses of the French Revolution, the horrors and turmoil caused by the Napoleonic Wars, he strove for order and inner harmony. The chancellor repeatedly advised to create a parliament from representatives of different peoples of Austria and to give real powers to the provincial diets, but the emperor did not heed his advice. In the field of diplomacy, Metternich made a significant contribution to maintaining peace in Europe. When the opportunity presented itself, Austrian troops were sent to suppress local uprisings, creating for themselves, their country and its first minister, an odious reputation among the supporters of freedom and national unification. Domestic politics was determined mainly by Emperor Franz I. State officials kept the entire field of education and students under tight control, prescribing what could be read and studied. The head of the censorship department, Count Josef Siedlnicki, banned literary works hostile to the absolutism of the emperor or religion, and organizations suspected of political heresy were persecuted. Journalists were forbidden even to use the word "constitution".
The development of culture. The prestige of Vienna as a musical capital remained at its height thanks to Ludwig van Beethoven. Franz Schubert's works can be considered the pinnacle of song lyrics. Josef Lanner and Johann Strauss-father became famous for their waltzes. The outstanding Austrian playwright of this period was Franz Grillparzer. Light, witty plays were written by Ferdinand Raimund and Johann Nestroy. In the field of religion, enlightened religious tolerance prevailed. No one could be excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church without the consent of the emperor. The clergy oversaw education, and the Jesuits were allowed to resume their activities in the empire. Restrictions on Jews were eased and synagogues were built in Vienna for adherents of both Orthodox and Reformed Judaism. A number of families of Jewish bankers have achieved a prominent public position and recognition; Solomon Rothschild stood out among them, who was friendly with Metternich and in 1823 received the title of baron. Unrest among national minorities. The Czech intelligentsia developed their native language, literary and historical works were written, in which the medieval Czech Republic was glorified. Patriotic Czech journalists denounced the Austrian administration and restrictions on civil liberties. In Galicia, Polish patriots in 1846 proclaimed the independence of their people. However, the most active in the struggle for national freedom were the Hungarians, or rather the middle strata of the Hungarian nobles. Hungarian writers and scientists revived the golden pages of the past and awakened hopes for a glorious future. The recognized apostle of the cultural and national revival of Hungary was Count Istvan Szechenyi, who belonged to one of the proudest aristocratic families in the kingdom. A widely traveled cosmopolitan, he remained loyal to the Habsburgs but advocated reforms in government. Lawyer Lajos Kossuth took over the leadership of the national movement. In 1847, his supporters achieved a majority in the Hungarian Diet. After the death of Franz I in 1835, the leadership of the Austrian government was entrusted to a regency council with the participation of Metternich, since the new emperor, Ferdinand I (1793-1875), proved incapable of governing. Censorship was softened, universities received more freedom.
MONARCHY UNDER FRANZ JOSEPH I
Revolutions of 1848-1849. The revolution in Paris in 1848 resonated with performances in Vienna, Bohemia, Hungary, and the Italian provinces. The Habsburg Empire was threatened with disintegration. Groups of students and artisans and the liberal bourgeoisie demanded that Prince Metternich resign from government posts and that a constitution be adopted in the country. The Habsburg court agreed. 75-year-old Metternich, who had been a "rock of order" for two generations, fled to England. The Austrian Constituent Assembly abolished serfdom. This was the main achievement of the revolutionary storm. In October 1848, Vienna experienced a second wave of mass unrest. The street fighting waged by the reformers caused serious destruction in the cities. The imperial army crushed the uprising. Prince Felix Schwarzenberg, having appropriated dictatorial powers, replaced the feebleminded Emperor Ferdinand I with his 18-year-old nephew, Franz Joseph. A constitution was drafted that provided for the creation of a federal legislature with the participation of various national groups and the equality of nations. But this document never entered into force. Later, a single imperial constitution was proclaimed, but it was not put into effect either.
national requirements. In the Czech Republic, the Czech-speaking and German-speaking opposition initially united to win concessions from the House of Habsburg. However, their paths diverged when Czech patriots demanded self-government for the Czech Republic and opposed unification into a single German state. Supporters of moderate views spoke out for the preservation of the Austrian Empire, transformed into a federation based on the equality of peoples. In June 1848, a congress of the Slavic leaders of Austria and representatives of foreign Slavs met in Prague to discuss political problems. There was a clash of Czech patriots with the Germans. As a result, the city was occupied by the Austrian army, which was the beginning of the restoration of the power of the Habsburgs. The uprising in Hungary developed along a more intricate plot. At the request of Kossuth, the Vienna court gave Hungary almost complete control over its internal affairs while maintaining dynastic and military ties with Austria. The serfs were emancipated and broad civil liberties were promised. But the Hungarian politicians stubbornly denied elementary human rights to the small peoples of the kingdom, who in the aggregate were more numerous than the Hungarians. For Croats and Romanians, Hungarian chauvinism was even worse than Habsburg authoritarianism. These peoples, instigated by Vienna, entered into a struggle with the Hungarians, which was soon joined by the Austrian troops. April 14, 1849 Kossuth proclaimed the independence of Hungary. Since the Austrian government did not have sufficient military forces to suppress the uprising, it turned to the Russian Tsar Nicholas I for help. He responded immediately, and Russian troops dealt a mortal blow to the Hungarian uprising. The remnants of Hungarian autonomy were completely eliminated, Kossuth himself fled. When it seemed that the Habsburg dynasty was on the verge of collapse, Lombardy and Venice rose in revolt, and the Venetian Republic was revived. However, the Austrian troops crushed the rebellion and restored Austrian dominance over the Italian provinces and the entire Apennine Peninsula. The court of Vienna also sought to prevent the unification of the German states in order to prevent Prussia from gaining a dominant position in German-speaking Europe. Austria emerged from the revolutionary upheavals weakened, but retained its integrity.
reaction and reform. Prince Felix Schwarzenberg actually ruled Austria until his death in 1852, and then Franz Joseph assumed full power. The Germanization of all the peoples of the empire who did not speak German was carried out. The Czech patriotic movement was suppressed, the Hungarians were pacified. In 1850 Hungary was united with Austria into a single customs union. Under the concordat of 1855, the Roman Catholic Church received the right to its own education system and press. On the Apennine Peninsula, the movement for national unification was led by the skillful politician of the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont), Count Camillo Cavour. His plans included the liberation of Lombardy and Venice. In accordance with a secret agreement with the French Emperor Napoleon III, Cavour in 1859 provoked a war with Austria. The united Franco-Sardinian forces defeated Franz Joseph's troops and Austria was forced to give up Lombardy. In 1860, the pro-Austrian dynasties in the small states of Italy were overthrown, and a united Italian kingdom was formed under the leadership of Piedmont. In 1884, Austria, in alliance with Prussia, began a war against Denmark for control of the small territories of Schleswig and Holstein. In 1866 a dispute over the division of Danish spoils led to a war between Austria and Prussia. Italy took the side of Prussia, and the Austrian Empire was defeated. However, the terms of the peace treaty dictated by Bismarck turned out to be quite tolerable. This was the subtle calculation of the Prussian chancellor. The House of Habsburg had to renounce its historical role in German affairs, without ceding any territories to Prussia (except the lands taken from Denmark). On the other hand, although the Austrian troops defeated the Italians on land and at sea, Venice was transferred to Italy, a number of Italian regions remained under the control of the Habsburgs.
Birth of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The loss of territories and prestige necessitated new form relations between Austria and Hungary. Various draft constitutions providing for the creation of a unified parliament were prepared without the participation of the Hungarians. Finally, in 1867 the famous "compromise" (Ausgleich) was worked out. The Austrian Empire, proclaimed in 1804, was transformed into a dualistic Austria-Hungary, with the rule of the Hungarians in Hungary and the Austrians the rest of the new state. In the sphere of international relations, both states had to act as a single entity, maintaining autonomy in internal affairs.
constitutional reforms. One of the directions of the reorganization of public administration in the 1860s in the Austrian half of the dual monarchy was the further development of the constitution. The constitution guaranteed civil liberties and equality for all linguistic groups. A bicameral state parliament, the Reichsrat, was established. The members of the lower house were elected through indirect elections. The constitution provided broad powers for the legislature, which were to meet once a year. The Cabinet of Ministers was responsible to the lower house. Both chambers had equal legislative power. One of the paragraphs of the constitution (the famous Article XIV) gave the monarch the power to issue decrees between sessions of parliament that had the force of law. Legislative assemblies of 17 Austrian lands (Landtags) received more powers, but the crown appointed governors who could override the decisions of the Landtags. Initially, it was the Landtags who elected deputies to the lower house of the Reichsrat, but in 1873 direct elections were introduced in districts and curiae (classes or qualified ranks of voters).
Political parties. The Austrian-German deputies were divided into rival political factions. The largest group was made up of adherents of the monarchy. In the 1880s, two new parties were organized - the Christian Social and the Social Democratic. The first of these spoke mainly on behalf of the Austrian-German peasants and petty bourgeoisie, and its leaders were loyal to the Habsburg dynasty and the Roman Catholic Church. The Social Democrats declared their adherence to the teachings of Karl Marx, but advocated the implementation of political and social reforms by constitutional methods. Party leader Viktor Adler and national theorist Otto Bauer were at the head of the party. Disputes over the national question weakened the movement, yet it campaigned successfully for universal suffrage for all adult males. There was also a small but noisy faction of the Great Germans, which demanded the unification of areas with a German-speaking population with the German Empire. This trend in Austrian politics had a serious impact on the mindset of Adolf Hitler, who spent several years in Vienna.
national minorities. The Czechs demanded that the Czech Republic be given the same status in the monarchy as Hungary received, but they never managed to achieve this. The development of educational opportunities and economic prosperity gave greater confidence to the Czech middle class. In general, Czech patriots, such as Tomas Masaryk, sought internal self-government for the Czech Republic, without demanding the destruction of the empire and the creation of an independent Czech state. In the Sejm of the Czech Republic there was a struggle between Czech deputies and representatives of the Austrian-German elements. The Czech-German enmity from time to time paralyzed the work of the parliament in Vienna. The Czechs won concessions in the fields of language, access to the civil service and education, and yet no constitutional formula was adopted that could satisfy the claims of the Czechs and at the same time be acceptable to the Austro-Germans. The Poles in Galicia received a significant degree of autonomy, which they were quite satisfied with. This province became the object of envy and admiration of the Polish patriots who lived in the Russian and Prussian-German parts of Poland. Unrest continued among the large Ukrainian minority in Galicia due to discrimination and repression by the Poles, and a small stratum of Ukrainian intellectuals fought for the rights of their compatriots. One of the Ukrainian factions spoke out for political unification with the Ukrainians of the Russian Empire. Of all the Austrian peoples, the southern Slavs (Slovenes, Croats, Serbs) caused the greatest concern of the Vienna court. The number of representatives of this national group increased in 1908, when Austria-Hungary annexed the former Turkish province of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The South Slavs in Austria varied widely in their views. Some of them sought to unite with the Kingdom of Serbia, others were satisfied with the existing situation, others preferred the creation of a South Slavic state within the framework of the Habsburg Monarchy. This last alternative meant the formation of a state covering the areas with South Slavic populations of both Hungary and Austria, with the same status as the Austrian Empire or the Kingdom of Hungary. This proposal met with some support in Austria, but was negatively received by almost all Hungarian politicians. Broader projects were also proposed to reorganize the monarchy into a federal union of peoples, but the concept of the Habsburg "United States" was never put into practice. There was no unity among the Italian minority of Austria, who lived in South Tyrol, Trieste and its environs. Some Italian-speaking residents tacitly agreed to the rule of Vienna, while militant separatists called for unification with Italy. Partly to calm national feelings, partly in response to strong pressure from the Social Democrats, in 1907 universal suffrage was introduced for the adult male population in elections to the Austrian parliament (Reichsrat). However, political unrest in the multinational empire intensified. In the spring of 1914, a break was announced in the work of the Reichsrat, and the parliament did not meet for three years.
Economic development. In the Czech Republic, Vienna and other urban centers there was a rapid development of industry. In a number of industries, especially in the steel and sugar industries, associations of firms called "cartels" were created to regulate output, maintain prices and employment, and in many ways similar to large trusts in the United States. The mining and manufacturing industries have reached the highest level of development in the Czech Republic. In Pilsen in 1868, Emil Skoda began to produce machinery and equipment, and by the end of the century, his steel and mining enterprises competed in quality with Krupp's factories in Germany. The son of a Czech rural shoemaker, Tomas Bata, created the largest shoe concern in Europe. Factories in the Vienna region specialized in the production of cotton and silk fabrics, carpets and chemicals, machinery, weapons, leather and wood products, and musical instruments. The city of Steyr became famous for its military factories, and the cities of Styria retained a reputation as centers of the metalworking and textile industries. The Austrian parliament passed laws regulating work in textile factories and mines, and compulsory insurance against illness and accidents was introduced. Under the leadership of Karl Luger, burgomaster of Vienna in 1897-1910 and a member of the Christian Social Party, the capital of the empire turned into a model of "municipal socialism". The railway network covered the entire territory of the empire. During the years leading up to the financial collapse of 1873, 9600 km of railway lines were laid. The government has acquired ownership of almost 90% of the entire network. Austrian financiers and engineers were involved in the construction of railways in the East, in particular the famous Eastern Railway, which passed through the Balkans and reached Istanbul. Navigation along the rivers of Austria developed, channels broke through, ports and roads were modernized. Trieste, not quite convenient for a large merchant fleet, has become a thriving center of world trade. Lacking sufficient financial resources, the country was heavily dependent on foreign investment for the development of industry, railways and commercial enterprises. Large French capital rushed to Austria through the channels of the Rothschild family and the capital of large German banks. As part of the Austro-Hungarian trade union, trade flourished between the two parts of the monarchy; Austria supplied manufactured goods in exchange for food and raw materials from Hungary.
Vienna at its zenith. By 1914, the multinational population of Vienna exceeded 2 million people. Germans, Czechs, Jews came to the city; German-speaking inhabitants now made up only half of the population of Vienna. A new era for the "Queen of the Danube" opened when the medieval fortress walls (1858-1860) that hampered the city were demolished and the ring street Ringstrasse was laid in their place. Beautiful public buildings were built along it. Suburban areas with extensive parks, forests and vineyards were included in the city limits. The activities of scientists, writers, artists and sculptors gave Vienna international fame. The famous medical school attracted many foreign scientists, and Sigmund Freud created a new science - psychoanalysis. No city in the world could surpass Vienna in the field of music. Johann Strauss son composed waltzes and operettas, which gave rise to the myth of carefree Vienna, the city of fun and joy. Composers Johannes Brahms and Anton Bruckner have achieved worldwide recognition. Richard Strauss shone in the art of opera; the opera Der Rosenkavalier brought him special popularity. The libretto for it and for many other works was written by the poet and playwright Hugo von Hofmannsthal. The worldview of the cultural part of Viennese society in the last decades of the existence of the empire was reflected in emphatically realistic stories and novels, such as Arthur Schnitzler's Road to Space. Peasant life was portrayed by Ludwig Anzengruber; his novel Sternstein Manor describes the manners and customs of rural Austria. A follower of Anzengruber, Peter Rosegger, portrayed the rural life of his native Styria in the novel The God Seeker and other works. From the German part of the Czech Republic came the author of one of the most popular pacifist novels of the era Down with Arms! - Baroness Bertha von Sutner.
World War I. The news of the beginning of the war was greeted with enthusiasm. The danger of the offensive of the Russian army rallied the Austrians, even the Social Democrats supported the war. Official and unofficial propaganda instilled the will to win and to a large extent quelled ethnic conflicts. The unity of the state was ensured by a tough military dictatorship, the dissatisfied were forced to submit. Only in the Czech Republic the war did not cause much enthusiasm. All the resources of the monarchy were mobilized to achieve victory, but the leadership acted extremely inefficiently. Military failures at the beginning of the war undermined the spirit of the army and the population. Streams of refugees rushed from the war zones to Vienna and other cities. Many public buildings were converted into hospitals. Italy's entry into the war against the monarchy in May 1915 increased the fervor of war, especially among the Slovenes. When the territorial claims of Romania to Austria-Hungary were rejected, Bucharest went over to the side of the Entente. It was at the very moment when the Romanian armies were retreating that the eighty-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph died. The new ruler, young Charles I, a man with limited abilities, removed the people on whom his predecessor relied. In 1917 Karl convened the Reichsrat. Representatives of national minorities demanded the reformation of the empire. Some sought autonomy for their peoples, others insisted on complete secession. Patriotic sentiments forced the Czechs to desert from the army, and the Czech rebel Karel Kramař was sentenced to death on charges of treason, but then pardoned. In July 1917, the emperor declared an amnesty for political prisoners. This gesture of reconciliation reduced his authority among the militant Austro-Germans: the monarch was reproached for being too soft. Even before the accession of Charles to the throne, the Austrian Social Democrats were divided into supporters and opponents of the war. Pacifist leader Friedrich Adler, son of Viktor Adler, assassinated Austrian Prime Minister Count Karl Stürgk in October 1916. At the trial, Adler made a sharp criticism of the government. Sentenced to a long prison term, he was released after the revolution in November 1918.
End of the Habsburg dynasty. A low grain harvest, a decrease in food supplies to Austria from Hungary, and a blockade by the Entente countries doomed ordinary Austrian city dwellers to hardships and hardships. In January 1918, the workers of the military factories went on strike and returned to work only after the government promised to improve their living and working conditions. In February, a riot broke out at the naval base in Kotor, in which the participants raised a red flag. The authorities brutally suppressed the riots and executed the instigators. Separatist sentiments grew among the peoples of the empire. At the beginning of the war, patriotic committees of Czechoslovaks (led by Tomasz Masaryk), Poles and South Slavs were created abroad. These committees campaigned in the countries of the Entente and America for the national independence of their peoples, seeking support from official and private circles. In 1919, the Entente states and the USA recognized these emigrant groups as de facto governments. In October 1918, the national councils within Austria, one after another, declared the independence of the lands and territories. The promise of Emperor Charles to reform the Austrian constitution on the basis of the principles of federalism hastened the process of disintegration. In Vienna, Austro-German politicians set up a provisional government for German Austria, while the Social Democrats campaigned for a republic. Charles I abdicated on November 11, 1918. The next day, the Republic of Austria was proclaimed.
REPUBLIC OF AUSTRIAN
First Republic (1918-1938). Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919), the new Austrian state had a small territory and a German-speaking population. Areas with a German population in the Czech Republic and Moravia went to Czechoslovakia, and Austria was forbidden to unite with the newly created German (Weimar) Republic. Significant territories in South Tyrol, inhabited by the Germans, went to Italy. Austria received from Hungary the eastern land of Burgenland. The Constitution of the Republic of Austria, adopted in 1920, provided for the introduction of the post of president with representative functions, a bicameral legislative body, the lower house of which was to be elected by the entire adult population of the country. The government, headed by the chancellor, was responsible to parliament. New Austria was actually a federation, the population of the city of Vienna and eight lands elected land assemblies (landtags), which enjoyed broad self-government rights.
party conflicts. Vienna was a stronghold of the Social Democrats; Socialist organizations also operated effectively in a number of other large settlements. The Christian Social Party remained the largest in the country, representing the interests of peasants, small merchants and Catholics. The Legitimist faction called for the return of the Habsburgs, and the Pan-German Party actively advocated unification with Germany. The Communist Party had only a limited number of supporters. In 1922, the Christian Social Party won a majority in parliament and held it until the takeover of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938. To meet the financial needs of the government, a huge money supply was put into circulation. The middle class experienced great hardship, including many dismissed civil servants. Impoverished workers reacted to their calamities with outbursts of vandalism. When the state treasury was empty in 1923, the League of Nations provided assistance to Austria. In the late 1920s, the state of the economy improved significantly, and there was hope that Austria could maintain political independence.
Dollfuss mode. In 1933, when the crisis led to the impoverishment of the population in the cities, Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss (HSP) launched a frontal attack on the socialists. In May 1934 a new constitution was adopted, turning Austria into a corporate state based on Catholic social principles. The coming to power in Germany of the National Socialists (1933) inspired the Austrian supporters of the Anschluss. German propaganda fueled the enthusiasm of Hitler's local followers. In July 1934, the National Socialists broke into the residence of Chancellor Dollfuss and mortally wounded him. However, troops loyal to the government prevented the implementation of the Anschluss.
After Dollfuss's death, power passed to his deputy, Dr. Kurt Schuschnigg, a passionate supporter of Austrian independence. Relying on the organization of the Fatherland Front, the new chancellor tried to strengthen the state, but measures to improve the economy were ineffective. Having entered into contact with Hitler in 1936, the Austrian leader received guarantees from him for the independence of Austria. However, this agreement remained on paper, and Nazi propaganda continued to have an increasing influence on the minds of impoverished Austrians. Benito Mussolini, who had previously defended Austrian independence and the Dollfuss-Schuschnigg regime, renounced his Austrian allies in November 1936 after the creation of the Rome-Berlin political axis, and from that time began to support the Anschluss.
German occupation of Austria. Applying political pressure in early 1938, Hitler forced the appointment of three well-known Nazis to positions in the Austrian government. Large street demonstrations of the National Socialists were held in the cities. Fearing the loss of Austrian independence, Schuschnigg unexpectedly announced a plebiscite on the future of the country. Belatedly, he tried to win the support of the socialists. Enraged Hitler, in turn, demanded the cancellation of the planned plebiscite and concentrated troops on the border with Austria. At this point, Schuschnigg resigned (he later took refuge in the United States). On March 12, the Nazi armies occupied Austria, which was then incorporated into the German Reich. In Austria, again renamed the Eastern March, all Nazi institutions and laws were introduced.
The Second World War. Incorporated into the German Reich as a province, Austria began to work for the Nazi war machine. After the economic crisis, from which the republic suffered, a period of prosperity began. Hydropower and oil resources were quickly mastered, modern plants and factories were built. After the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the human and material resources of the Eastern Mark were directed to providing for the German army. Thousands of Austrian soldiers fought for Hitler on the Eastern Front. As the fighting continued, poverty and war weariness gripped the country just as it had during the war of 1914-1918. Allied bombers raided Austrian cities, causing great destruction. Small but active resistance groups fought against the Nazi regime. At the end of the war, Soviet troops entered Austria from Hungary, while British and American troops entered the southern and western lands. The capture of the "Fortress Vienna" was accompanied by fierce street fighting. Austria was divided into four zones of occupation. The Soviet zone included the northeast of the country, where many factories and oil fields were located. The American zone was located to the north and west; British - in the south, French - in the southwest. Vienna, which was inside the Soviet zone, was also divided into four occupation sectors, with the old center (inner city) under the joint control of all four allied powers.
Second Republic. Freed from the Nazi yoke, the Austrians sought independence and the restoration of the original name of the country - Austria. With the permission of the occupying authorities, the Second Republic was created. Veteran Social Democracy Karl Renner was appointed chancellor of the provisional government to lead the process of restoring the democratic order. An experienced politician respected by all, Renner, as chancellor, and then president of the republic, contributed a lot to establishing order and stability in the country. In April 1945, he formed a provisional government, which included representatives of his own Socialist Party (the former Social Democratic Party), the People's Party (as the Christian Social Party became known) and the Communists. The constitutional system that existed before the dictatorship of Dollfuss was restored. The powers and legislative power of the new Austrian government were expanded step by step. Mandatory participation in elections was introduced, and refusal to vote could be punished by a fine or even imprisonment. In the November 1945 elections, the Austrian People's Party (ANP) won 85 seats in parliament, the Socialist Party (SPA) 76, and the Communists 4 seats. Subsequently, this balance of power changed little, the communists lost all their seats in 1959. In 1949, a right-wing extremist group was created - the Union of Independents (in 1955 it was transformed into the Austrian Freedom Party, APS).
Post-war recovery. Revival of the economy. In 1945 the Austrian economy was in a state of chaos. The destruction and impoverishment caused by the war, the influx of refugees and displaced persons, the transition of military enterprises to the production of peaceful products, shifts in world trade and the presence of borders between the zones of occupation of the Allies - all this created seemingly insurmountable obstacles to economic recovery. For three years, most of the inhabitants of the Austrian cities fought desperately for survival. The occupying authorities helped in organizing the supply of food. Thanks to a good harvest in 1948, food rationing was relaxed, and two years later, all food restrictions were lifted. In the western zones of occupation, aid from the Marshall Plan and other programs produced quick results. The nationalization of the three largest Austrian banks and almost 70 industrial concerns (coal mining, steel, energy, engineering and river transport) in 1946-1947 gave significant economic advantages. Revenues from state-owned enterprises were directed to the further development of industry. The ANP proposed to allow elements of private ownership in the nationalized sector of the economy by selling part of the shares to small owners, while the socialists called for an expansion of the scope of state ownership. The radical monetary reform stabilized and accelerated the recovery of the economy. Foreign tourists appeared - a vital source of government revenue. The railway stations destroyed during the bombings were rebuilt. In 1954, the volume of products produced by factories and mines exceeded the level of 1938, crops in the fields and vineyards, and logging almost returned to their previous level.
Revival of culture. With the recovery of the economy, a revival of culture also began. Theaters, musical performances and the development of the arts in the city and province were now funded by the state, and not by wealthy patrons. In Vienna, the main efforts were focused on the restoration of the Cathedral of St. Stefan, and in 1955 the opera house and the Burgtheater were reopened. The second opera house, in Salzburg, was opened in 1960. Austrian schools of all levels, cleared of Nazi influence, resumed their activities. In addition to the universities in Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck, the University of Salzburg was founded in 1964. Newspapers, magazines, and books began to appear again.
State contract. The occupying Allied troops were stationed on the territory of Austria for 10 years. In 1943, at a meeting in Moscow, leaders Soviet Union, Great Britain and the USA announced their intention to recreate Austria as an independent, sovereign and democratic state. Until 1948, when Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet bloc, Moscow supported Yugoslavia's claims to the border part of Austrian territory. In March 1955, the Kremlin changed its position and invited the Austrian government to send a delegation to Moscow to determine the terms for the conclusion of the State Treaty, which was already signed on May 15, 1955 The State Treaty was signed in Vienna in an atmosphere of great rejoicing. The state treaty restored the independence and full sovereignty of Austria. It entered into force on July 27, 1955, after which the Allied troops were withdrawn from the country. On October 26, 1955, following the withdrawal of the last foreign military units, the government approved a federal constitutional law declaring the permanent neutrality of Austria and excluding the possibility of joining any military alliances or establishing foreign military bases in Austria. Austria assumed heavy economic obligations. The most valuable "Nazi property" was the oil fields and refineries, whose output increased significantly under Soviet rule. Although under the terms of the treaty the equipment and facilities passed to Austria, she was obliged to send one million tons of oil annually to the Soviet Union until 1965. Austria also agreed to restore the pre-war positions of British and American firms, which they held in oil industry before the arrival of the Nazis. In addition, Austria was to supply $150 million worth of goods to the Soviet Union for six years. Since armed forces were needed to maintain Austrian neutrality, an army was created with just over 20,000 soldiers. In December 1955 Austria was admitted to the United Nations. Two years later, Vienna was chosen as the permanent seat of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The economic growth. At the time of the signing of the State Treaty, Austria was experiencing an economic boom. In 1954-1955, the gross national product - the monetary expression of all goods and services produced - increased by almost 20%; Subsequently, the growth rate slowed down, but the general trend continued. In addition to the already developed hydropower resources, a number of new long-term projects have been developed with the attraction of financial resources from abroad. These projects made it possible to export electricity to neighboring countries. The electrification of railways and the improvement of the quality of roads, such as the magnificent Vienna-Salzburg autobahn, accelerated communication between the regions of the republic. Record exports and tourism kept Austria's balance of payments in balance. Financial obligations in favor of the USSR, in accordance with the 1955 agreement, turned out to be less burdensome than it seemed at first. The USSR gradually went to reduce the volume of payments. Austria sent the last batch of its deliveries under reparations in 1963. Maintaining a neutral status for political reasons, Austria decided in 1960 to join the European Free Trade Association, and not its competitor, the Common Market. However, since more than half of all trade was with the countries of the Common Market, Austria became its associate member in 1973.
foreign policy issues. When Soviet troops put down the Hungarian uprising in 1956, almost 170,000 refugees arrived in Austria from Hungary. Most of the Hungarian refugees actually found permanent residence here. The same situation followed after the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, when in 1968-1969 almost 40,000 Czechs fled across the Austrian border and approx. 8 thousand of them found refuge in Austria. Austria was constantly infiltrated by illegal immigrants from Yugoslavia. From time to time, the Yugoslav government protested against violations of the rights of the Slovene and Croatian minorities living in southern Austria.
South Tyrol problem. This painful problem for Austria was the subject of a constant dispute with Italy. It was about people of Austrian nationality living in a small alpine region, which the Austrians called South Tyrol, and the Italians called Trentino Alto Adige. The roots of the problem go back to the 1915 agreement: in accordance with it, Italy was promised this region in exchange for its entry into the First World War on the side of the Entente and a declaration of war on Austria. According to the Treaty of Saint-Germain, this territory with 250 thousand German-speaking inhabitants was included in Italy. 78 thousand inhabitants left the region after 1938. At the end of the war, the Austrians spoke in favor of including the territory of South Tyrol in the Second Republic. The victorious powers rejected this demand, although a special Italian-Austrian agreement of 1946 provided for the introduction of internal self-government in this territory. Austria stated that the German minority was being discriminated against. Demonstrations and riots broke out there from time to time. Italy responded by accusing Austria of supporting pan-German and Nazi elements. Terrorist attacks, which Italy claimed were staged on Austrian territory, continued in South Tyrol throughout the 1960s. At the end of 1969, Italy and Austria reached an agreement under which the region received the rights of extended autonomy, the influence of the Tyroleans on the national policy in the province increased, the German language received the appropriate status and the German name of the territory was recognized - South Tyrol.
Coalition governments, 1945-1966. The ANP and SPA formed a coalition cabinet after the elections of 1945. The brutal experience of the First Republic told both parties that compromise was the price to be paid for a democratic revival. The labor coalition collapsed after the 1966 elections, and the new government was formed exclusively from members of the ANP. The SPA, led by Bruno Kreisky, a former foreign minister, went into opposition. During these years, the presidency was invariably occupied by socialists. The mayor of Vienna, the "Red" General Theodor Kerner, was the President of Austria from 1951-1957. He was replaced by the experienced manager Adolf Scherf (1957-1965). Another former burgomaster of the capital, Franz Jonas, held the presidency in 1965-1974, Rudolf Kirchschleger held this post for two six-year terms. The post of chancellor was held by members of the ANP: Julius Raab, a moderate supporter of the development of private enterprise, held it from 1953-1961, he was succeeded by Alfons Gorbach, who resigned in 1964. The next chancellor was Josef Klaus, who then headed the one-party ANP cabinet in 1966, until in 1970 did not give way to Bruno Kreisky. Ministerial and political posts during the coalition years were distributed between the two main parties.
Socialist government in the 1970s. The 1970 elections gave the SPA a majority of the vote, and Kreisky formed the first purely socialist cabinet in Austrian history. The socialist government took a course, first of all, to create new jobs and allocate subsidies. GDP grew by an average of 4.3% annually, which was ahead of the pace of the most developed countries; inflation and unemployment levels were well below world levels. This policy caused a rapid increase in public debt, but Austria managed to avoid the consequences of high debt repayment costs due to the record growth of exports and large receipts from tourism.
1980s. The far right has reasserted itself on the political scene as a third force in Austrian politics. In 1983, the SPA received 48% of the vote in the federal election; APS gained 5%, and the SPA invited her to take part in the formation of the government. In 1986, the ANP nominated Kurt Waldheim, who was UN Secretary General from 1972-1982, as a candidate for the presidency. The investigation revealed that in 1942-1945, as a lieutenant in the German army, he took part in Nazi atrocities in the Balkans, and then hid the facts about his past. In the November 1986 elections, the APS doubled its vote to 10%; The SPA and ANP together scored 84%, and Franz Vranitzky formed a "grand coalition" reminiscent of the 1945-1966 coalition. The implementation of tax reform and partial denationalization gave impetus to the further development of the economy. This was facilitated by the increase in trade exchange with former communist countries after 1989.
1990s. Despite the scandals in which many prominent socialists were involved, the SPA, which again adopted the name of the Social Democratic Party, received a relative majority in the 1990 elections. The ANP achieved its lowest result since 1945 - 32%, APS increased to 17%. The grand coalition led by Vranitsky continued its work. With the unification of Germany in 1990, Austria began to move away from the policy of neutrality, amending the State Treaty, which allowed for cooperation with the German armed forces. Austria was the only neutral state to allow Allied aircraft to fly over its territory during the Gulf War. She officially approved the decision to divide Yugoslavia and was one of the first to recognize the new states - Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. With the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe, Austria faced increasing immigration from the region and introduced entry restrictions for foreign workers in 1990, affecting primarily Romanian immigrants. Fearing a new wave of immigration from the former Soviet Union and spurred on by agitation from APS leader Jörg Haider, the government tightened asylum laws in 1993. The new policy was criticized by international human rights organizations and Austrian liberals. In 1992, the long-standing dispute over the autonomy of the German-speaking population in South Tyrol was resolved. The governments of Austria and Italy adopted and put into effect a package of measures to ensure autonomy. Waldheim, who found himself in international isolation, was persuaded to refuse re-election after the expiration of his term in 1992. In the subsequent elections, Thomas Klestil (ANP), supported by the APS, won 57% of the vote, defeating the Social Democratic candidate Rudolf Streicher. The unification of Germany, the growth of emigration from the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and propaganda by right-wing extremists supported by APS leader Haider contributed to the intensification of xenophobia. In late 1993, neo-Nazis mailed bombs to politicians and other prominent figures involved in the "foreigners controversy". Helmut Zilk, the popular burgomaster of Vienna, was seriously wounded in the process. The violence came to a head when five people, including four Roma, were killed in a bomb explosion. Left-wing extremists responded with a series of attacks on right-wing leaders in early 1995. In June 1994, in a popular referendum, two-thirds of the voters voted for the country's accession to the EU, despite opposition from Haider and the Greens. January 1, 1995 Austria, along with Finland and Sweden, became a member of the EU. In the 1994 parliamentary elections, the polarization of political forces acquired an open character. It marked a radical change in the politics of post-war Austria. The APS received 22.5% of the vote, the ANP - only 27.7% of the vote, having practically lost its traditional positions as the second largest party in the country. Together, SPA and ANP received only 62.6% of the vote. The number of votes cast for the Greens has more than doubled since 1990: they collected 7.3%. A new political party, the Liberal Forum (LF), which broke away from the APS, was supported by 5.5% of voters. The SPA and the ANP formed a new coalition after the 1994 elections, but their union broke up almost immediately due to disagreements over economic policy. Both parties disagreed on how to achieve a reduction in the state budget deficit and meet the criteria necessary for Austria's entry into the European Economic and Monetary Union. The ANP advocated drastic cuts in social spending, while the SPA proposed raising taxes. Disagreements eventually led to the collapse of the coalition, and in December 1995 a new general election was held. Their results again showed that the population supported the leading historical parties: the SPA and the ANP achieved better results than in 1994, while the positions of the APS, renamed by Haider in 1995 into the Svobodniki party, weakened somewhat. In early 1996, a new coalition government of the SPA and ANP was formed. Both parties agreed to adopt an austerity plan that calls for cuts in social spending and further privatization of state-owned enterprises. The mid-term elections reflected growing discontent among the population: the anti-EU Svobodniki won the 1996 elections to the European Parliament and to the city parliament of Vienna. In January 1997, Chancellor Vranitzky abruptly resigned, citing age and fatigue after an 11-year tenure as head of government. Finance Minister Viktor Klima became the new federal chancellor and chairman of the SPA party.
In the parliamentary elections in October 1999, the SPA won by a small margin from its rivals. "Svobodniki" and the NPA gained an approximately equal number of votes.
Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .
The history of Austria is largely determined by its geographical position. The country is located at the intersection of three cultural areas: Romanesque, Germanic and Slavic
A thousand years before our era, Illyrian tribes settled on the territory of modern Austria. Judging by the found and studied archaeological sites, the Illyrians had a developed culture
On the territory of modern Carinthia in a later period, the Celtic state of Noricum was formed. Even later, the right bank of the Danube becomes a province of the Roman Empire, and then not only the political border passes through the territory of modern Austria, but also the border between the Christian (Roman) and pagan (German) worlds.
In the era of the great migration of peoples, the foundations were laid for the future national-territorial structure of the Austrian lands
From the 4th century n. e. in the foothills of the Alps, an important point of intersection and unification of multilingual peoples is formed
The Germans conquer the northern Roman provinces in the 5th century. Their wave runs into a wave of Slavs migrating in the same direction. In the 500-700s, the power of the dukes of the Bavarian brand was established here. Later, Charlemagne conquers these lands from the Avars tribe (decisive battles took place near Vienna). Finally, with the appearance of the Hungarians, moving from behind the Urals, and their consolidation to the east of the German lands, the migration of large ethnic groups ceased.
From the 10th century, during the reign of the Babenbergs, the Austrian borders were significantly expanded to the south and east, and the residence of the Babenbergs - Vienna - became the capital of a prosperous country, later an empire. The Babenbergs created the foundation of an independent Austrian state. By the time of their reign (about 996) is the first mention of the name of the state - “Ostarrichi”, that is, “eastern country, empire”
The influence of the Babenbergs constantly increased and expanded, including through prudent marriages with politically and religiously strong European families. After during the XI century. under their control were Vienna and most of modern Lower Austria, the same happens with Styria and Upper Austria (1192)
The period of intensive development of trade for Austria began in the middle of the XII century. In 1156 Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa elevated the status of an Austrian territory to a duchy. Since that time, the image of an eagle has been used as a national symbol.
The political and economic strengthening of Austria was accompanied by the flourishing of spiritual life: missionary routes of Christian monks passed through its territory, leaving behind centers of a new, Christian culture - monasteries. Theologians, philosophers, historians, writers worked within the walls of the monasteries
The Austrian lands served as a transshipment base for the crusaders during their campaigns to the East to Christian shrines. In the vicinity of the monasteries, secular culture is also developing: the famous minnesinger (literal translation from German - “singer of love”) Walter von der Vogelweide lived and worked at the Vienna court, and the “Song of the Nibelungs” (the most significant epic work in German) acquired here, on the banks of the Danube, its final form
In 1246, Duke Frederick II Babenberg died in a battle with the Hungarians on the Austro-Hungarian border, leaving no heir. This allows the Czech king Ottokar II to intervene in the affairs of neighbors and take control of vast, by European standards, territories (the entire space from the Sudetenland along the northern borders of the modern Czech Republic to the Adriatic Sea)
Ottokar II overestimated his abilities when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the new Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf of Habsburg. It cost him his life: King Ottokar died in a battle with a powerful enemy in the town of Markfeld in 1278
In 1282, Rudolph grants two sons Austria and Styria as fiefs. Thus began one of the most powerful dynasties ever to rule in Western Europe. The Habsburgs retained power in these lands until the twentieth century.
In the initial period of their rule, the Habsburgs experienced considerable difficulties in relations with their neighbors (including several defeats in wars with the Swiss), but they managed to consolidate their internal forces and resources: Carinthia and Carniola were annexed in 1355. These provinces were followed by Tyrol (1363)
Rudolph IV (Founder), Duke of Austria in 1358-1365, wishing to unite all the lands under one flag, introduced the image of five eagles, in imitation of the symbolism of the Roman emperors. He achieved an increase in his status to that of an archducal. During the reign of Rudolph, the foundation stone of the Cathedral of St. Stephen in Vienna (today the image of the cathedral is one of the symbols of the capital), the University of Vienna is established
In 1453, Frederick III succeeds in legally obtaining the status of archduke, and he is elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He also convinces Pope Paul II of the advisability of raising Vienna - in 1469 the city becomes a bishopric. Friedrich's ambitions sometimes barely fit within a reasonable framework. So, the abbreviation AEIOU became its motto, which, as a rule, is deciphered as follows: “Austria Est Imperator Orbi Universo” (translated from Latin: “Austria is the emperor of the whole world”). In an effort to realize his plans, Frederick began a war with King Mattius Corvinus of Hungary. This led to the occupation of Vienna by the latter in 1485-1490. The reason for the failure, according to eyewitnesses, was primarily that Frederick could not or did not want to attract the Archbishop of Salzburg to his side, and he took the side of Frederick's opponent. Salzburg was in that era an influential church principality
The name of Frederick III is associated with the continuation of the tradition of arranged marriages - the successful political course of the Austrian ruling families (Babenbergs and Habsburgs), which allowed them to extend their influence to many European countries. In 1477, Frederick's son Maximilian, having married Mary of Burgundy, seeks control over Burgundy and the Netherlands
Maximilian's eldest son, Philip, marries a Spanish infanta in 1496, and Charles, Philip's son, achieves even more: he becomes in 1516 Carlos I, King of Spain, and then Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1519 )
Charles passed over all Austrian territories to his younger brother Ferdinand in 1521, who also inherited Bohemia and Hungary through his marriage to Princess Anne after her brother, King Louis II, died in battle with the Turks in 1526. In 1556, Charles abdicated the imperial throne and title, and Ferdinand was crowned in his place. The huge territorial inheritance of Charles passed to his only son Philip II
For several centuries in a row, one of the main concerns of the Austrian rulers was the security of the southern borders, from where the hordes of Turks constantly invaded. In the 20s of the XVI century. the Turks subjugated almost the entire Balkan region, and their eyes were already fixed on Vienna. But Vienna withstood the siege, fortunately short due to the early onset of winter.
In 1571, Maximilian II grants his subjects the right to freedom of religion, as a result of which most of the Austrians convert to Protestantism
In 1576, the eldest son of Maximilian, Rudolf II, having become emperor, begins the counter-reformation, which leads to the return of most of those who left to the Protestants in the bosom of the Catholic Church, sometimes not without coercion. Religious intolerance was the cause of the Thirty Years' War, which devastated all of Central Europe. In 1645, the army of Protestant Sweden proceeded to the walls of Vienna, but this time the city was not damaged either. Then, bloodless by the war, internal religious strife between Catholics and Evangelical Protestants, Vienna could hardly resist the onslaught of a strong enemy. In this desperate situation, Kaiser Ferdinand III calls on the church for help. The Kaiser himself swears an oath to erect a column in honor of the Virgin Mary if the city is saved from enemy troops. The story of the siege ends with the fact that, without even trying to storm the city, the commander of the Swedish army, Torstensson, orders the withdrawal of troops
In 1646, the monument promised by the Kaiser was built on the central square of Vienna and adorned it with itself until 1667, when it was dismantled at the direction of Kaiser Leopold I, son of Ferdinand, and transported to the city of Wernstein, where it is located to this day. The place of the original on the square was taken by a bronze copy. In 1648, the Treaty of Westphalia was signed, according to which Austria ceded part of its territories to France
The Austrian capital was miraculously lucky again when in 1683, engulfed in a terrible plague epidemic, it was ready to capitulate to the troops of the Turks, but the armies of friendly Christian powers, Germany and Poland, arrived in time, and the enemy forces were first pushed back from Vienna, and then and still further - to the south-eastern limits of Europe. The memory of the defeat of the Turkish troops is kept by frescoes and sculptural compositions made in the Baroque style and decorating the buildings of that era in many cities of Austria.
With the death of Charles II, the last of the Habsburgs on the Spanish line, Austria is drawn into the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), which ended with the fact that Charles IV, the Austrian emperor, got only part of the Spanish possessions (in the Netherlands and Italy). Karl brings to the dispute his daughter, Maria Theresa, who, in the absence of male heirs, ascends in 1740 to the Habsburg throne. The support of Britain and the Netherlands largely contributed to the success of Austria and her empress in the struggle for political leadership on the continent - the rich lands of Bavaria are moving to the empire
During the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) there is a change of political sympathies, and Austria, already with the confrontation of Britain, is trying unsuccessfully to recapture Silesia from Prussia
The 40-year reign of Empress Maria Theresa is considered the golden era in the history of Austria. It was during this period that the strong power of the center was established, the institution of the civil service was introduced, the economy, the army and the general education system were reformed. Since that time, Austria has been gaining fame as the “country of great musicians”
Maria Theresa left a good memory of herself, showing extraordinary courage during the smallpox epidemic in 1763: the empress, who lost her two children, at the risk of becoming infected, looked after her sick daughter-in-law
Maria Theresa's work was continued by her son Joseph II, whose innovations include the edict of religious tolerance, the secularization of church property, and the abolition of serfdom.
Under Emperor Franz, the first national anthem was adopted, composed by Joseph Haydn and performed on February 12, 1797 (according to the plan, the adoption of the anthem was to rally the nation in the face of the impending danger from France and Napoleon). The anthem is based on the Croatian folk melody of Burgenland
The sunset of the golden age for Austria turned out to be the appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte on the arena of the European theater. His triumph, military successes forced Franz II to renounce first the Austrian, and then the German imperial crown and the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Military spending led to a financial collapse, and it is not known how it would have ended for Austria if not for Russia's help.
In 1814-1815. a congress is held in Vienna, according to the decisions of which Austria regains part of the lost
The era of the reign of Chancellor Clemens von Mitternich, the restoration of the monarchy, the formation of Austria-Hungary in 1867, the establishment of general suffrage are accompanied by a new take-off in the development of culture and art, especially music
On June 28, 1914, an attempt was made on the life of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo; a month later, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia
November 12, 1918 - the date that marks the proclamation of Austria as a republic, and with it the end of the centuries-old Habsburg dynasty. According to the peace treaty of September 10, 1919, Austria is forced to recognize the state independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and Yugoslavia. Austria is losing its influence in neighboring Romania and Bulgaria. All this together caused a serious economic crisis that lasted in Austria until the mid-1920s and was accompanied by a shortage of material food resources. Gradually, and thanks to the successful actions of the federal government, the situation stabilized
Austria entered the Second World War even before it began: on March 11, 1938, the troops of neighboring Germany marched through the streets of Vienna, and an Austrian by birth, who had recently left the country as a failed, unrecognized artist, Adolf Hitler was met with triumph on the main square of Vienna - - Heldenplatz. Seven years will pass before the liberation of Austria by the allied forces. On April 11, 1945, Soviet tanks would be the first to enter Vienna. At the end of the war, Austria and Vienna, as a special district, were divided into four areas of responsibility. On May 15, 1955, in the Belvedere Palace, a state treaty was signed between the victorious countries and Austria, proclaiming the political neutrality of Austria, and the allied troops were withdrawn beyond its borders
The times of the Cold War brought diplomatic prominence to Austria, its capital, Vienna. Representative offices of the largest international organizations, including the UN, have settled here. The country's economy developed successfully.
