Geographical encyclopedia of what is Manchukuo, what does it mean and how to spell it correctly. Puppet state of Manchukuo

manchukuo

MANCHZHOU-GO (Manchurian state) in 1932-45 a puppet state created by the Japanese imperialists in the territory of the North-East. China - Manchuria. In August 1945, the Soviet Army liberated the North-East. China from the Japanese occupiers, which put an end to the existence of Manchukuo.

Manchukuo

(Manchurian state), a puppet state created by the Japanese imperialists in the territory of Northeast China - Manchuria and existed from March 1932 to August 1945. It was subjected to colonial exploitation and used as a military springboard for aggression against the rest of the territory of China, the USSR and the MPR. Territory M.-g. ≈ over 1 million km2. The population is about 30 million people. The capital is the city of Changchun, renamed Xinjing ("New Capital"). On the night of September 18-19, 1931, Japan, provocatively accusing the Chinese of destroying the track of the South Manchurian Railway belonging to it in the Shenyang (Mukden) region, sent troops into the territory of Northeast China. The Chinese troops, following the order of the Kuomintang government, offered no resistance. As a result, over the course of several months, Japan almost unimpededly took possession of the entire territory of the three northeastern provinces of China (in 1934 also the province of Rehe) and created a puppet administration there, which in March 1932 proclaimed the creation of an "independent" M.-g. The supreme ruler ("ruler-regent") M.-g. became the last emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty (ruled in China in 1644-1911; formal abdication ≈ February 1912) Pu Yi, associated with Japanese intelligence. On March 1, 1934, he was proclaimed Emperor M.-g. With all the affairs of M.-g. in fact, Japanese advisers and officials who occupied most of the responsible posts were in charge. A large role in the ideological indoctrination of the population was played by the society they created, the Sekhehoi (“Consent Society”), which intensively propagated the ideas of “Japan's great mission in Asia”. In M.-g. a military-police regime was established. During the occupation of Northeast China, the Japanese militarists increased the strength of the part of the Kwantung Army stationed in M.-g. from 12,000 to 780,000 men (the army of the puppet state was increased to 170,000 men), created a system of fortified regions on the border with the USSR , built a network of strategic highways and railways, airfields and other military installations. From the territory of M.-g. During 1933-1939, Japan repeatedly staged military provocations against the USSR and the MPR, including major provocations in 1938 in the area of ​​Lake Khasan and in 1939 in the area of ​​the Khalkhin-Gol River. It plundered the natural wealth of Northeast China, created various enterprises for the extraction and processing of natural raw materials, the production of iron, steel, and synthetic fuel for its military needs. An agricultural supply chain was introduced low prices and labor duty. The best lands were handed over to the Japanese colonists. Severe exploitation and police orders provoked resistance from the local population. Since 1932, numerous partisan detachments have been operating, which in 1935 were united into the Northeast United Anti-Japanese Army, headed by the Chinese Communists. However, by 1941, most of the partisan detachments were defeated by the Japanese. Korean partisan detachments also operated in the areas bordering Korea. In August 1945, at the final stage of the Second World War of 1939–45, Northeast China was liberated from the Japanese occupiers by the Soviet Army, which put an end to the existence of M.-G. ═Lit.: Sapozhnikov B. G., The Sino-Japanese War and Japan's Colonial Policy in China (1937≈194)

M., 1970; Pu Yi, The first half of my life, translated from Chinese, M., 1968.

V. P. Ilyushechkin.

Wikipedia

Manchukuo

Manchu-go, Manchuria (, State of Manchuria- a puppet state formed by the Japanese military administration on the territory of Manchuria occupied by Japan; existed from March 1, 1932 to August 19, 1945. It bordered on the Empire of Japan, the Mongolian People's Republic, the USSR, Mengjiang and the Republic of China.

The capital is Xinjing; the last Chinese emperor (from the Manchu Qing dynasty) Pu Yi (Supreme ruler in 1932 - 1934, emperor from 1934 to 1945) was placed at the head of the state.

In fact, Manchukuo was controlled by Japan and followed entirely in line with its policy. In 1939 military establishment Manchukuo participated in the battles on the Khalkhin Gol River. During the Soviet-Japanese war, Manchukuo ceased to exist. On August 19, 1945, Emperor Pu Yi was captured at Fengtian Airport by Red Army paratroopers. In 1949, the territory of Manchukuo became part of the PRC.

Examples of the use of the word manchukuo in literature.

The provocative actions of the Japanese military were accompanied by a loud campaign in the Japanese press and Manchukuo directed against the Mongolian People's Republic and the Soviet Union.

There was the palace of the puppet emperor Manchukuo, protege of the Japanese Henry Pu Yi.

Coat of arms of Manchukuo
Manchukuo is highlighted in green. The Japanese Empire is in red. Capital xinjing Currency unit Yuan of Manchukuo Form of government Empire Dynasty Aisingioro Supreme ruler - 1932 - 1934 Pu Yi Emperor - 1934-1945 Pu Yi

Manchukuo (State of Manchuria, whale. 大滿洲帝國 - "Damanzhou-digo" (Great Manchurian Empire)), a state (empire) formed by the Japanese military administration in the territory of Manchuria occupied by Japan; existed from March 1, 1932 to August 19, 1945.

In fact, Manchukuo was controlled by Japan and followed entirely in line with its policy. In the city, the armed forces of Manchukuo participated in the war at Khalkhin Gol (in Japanese historiography - “The Incident at Nomonkhan”). During the Soviet-Japanese War, Manchukuo ceased to exist. On August 19, 1945, Emperor Pu Yi was captured in the Mukden airport building by Red Army paratroopers. The territory of Manchukuo became part of the People's Republic of China.

Story

After the conquest of China by the Manchu tribes, the Ming dynasty was overthrown. The conquerors proclaimed the power of their Qing dynasty in China, but their historical homeland, Manchuria, was not fully integrated with China, retaining legal and ethnic differences.

The progressive weakening of Qing China in the 19th century caused the separation of part of the border regions and the strengthening of the great powers competing with each other. Russia expressed significant interest in the northern territories of the Qing Empire and in 1858, under the Beijing Treaty, gained control over the territories called Outer Manchuria in China (modern Primorsky Krai, Amur Krai, south Khabarovsk Krai and the Jewish Autonomous Region). However, the further weakening of the Qing government led to the strengthening of Russia also in Inner Manchuria, where the Chinese Eastern Railway was built, passing along the route Harbin - Vladivostok. The Russian government considered the Zheltorossiya project, the basis of which was to be the exclusion zone of the CER, the formation of a new Cossack army and Russian colonists.

The clash of Russian and Japanese interests led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, as a result of which Russian influence in Manchuria was replaced by Japanese. Between 1925 and 1925, Japan significantly increased its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic leverage.

During the Russian civil war In 1918-1921, Japan took advantage of the weakening of Russia and occupied Outer Manchuria. Manchuria became the arena of struggle between Russia, Japan and China.

Between Soviet Russia and Japan formed a buffer Far Eastern Republic, however, further strengthening of the Bolsheviks and pressure from the Western powers on Japan led to the withdrawal of the occupying troops in 1925.

The commander of the Kwantung Army was also the Japanese ambassador to Manchukuo, and had the right to veto the decisions of the emperor.

There was a Legislative Assembly in the state, whose role was reduced to stamping the decisions of the State Council. the only permitted political party was the government-funded Concord Society (cf. en:Concordia Association); in addition to him, several emigrant groups, in particular, Russian emigrants, were allowed to organize their own political movements (see, for example, the Russian Fascist Party).

Concord Society

The Accord Society played a key role in Manchukuo. Its name is explained by the pan-Asian concept of the "consent of peoples" put forward by the Japanese, which assumed the self-determination of various Asian peoples along the lines of the Soviet model of the "union of peoples". At the same time, the coexistence of various nationalities was assumed strictly within the framework of a single centralized state, which could help to avoid possible weakening. The Concord Society assumed self-organization within separate communities for different nationalities; it included Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, Japanese, Muslims, Russian emigrants, and also a Chinese majority. At the same time, the organization was characterized by reliance on traditional religious leaders for each community.

The society was conceived as the main political force of Manchukuo, designed to replace the Kwantung Army in this capacity. However, in reality, the Concord Society has become an ideological tool in the hands of the Japanese military. In the mid-1930s, the leadership of the Kwantung Army ordered the society to purge its leaders, who were accused of left-wing sympathies. After the purge, the organization became, in fact, no different from its progenitors - the fascist parties of Europe of that time, standing on the positions of anti-communism and corporatism, and was transformed for mobilization purposes.

The model for the Concord Society was the Japanese organization Taisei Yokusenkai (Association for the Relief of the Throne). All civil servants, up to teachers, and all important figures of society were included in the society. Young people aged 16 to 19, starting in 1937, were automatically enrolled in the organization. By 1943, up to 10% of the population of Manchuria was in society.

Although a one-party system was not formally established in Manchukuo, in fact the only political party allowed was the Concorde Society. An exception to this rule were various political movements of immigrants living in Manchuria.

Military establishment

The key role in the creation and further life of Manchukuo was played by the Kwantung Army - the Japanese army group on Far East. The decision to seize Manchuria in 1932 was made by the command of the Kwantung Army arbitrarily, without the consent of the Japanese Parliament.

In the future, the commander of the Kwantung Army simultaneously served as the ambassador of Japan, and had the right to veto the decisions of Emperor Pu Yi. Thus, the status of Manchukuo did not actually differ from the status of a protectorate of any of the European colonial empires [ source not specified 205 days] .

The Kwantung Army formed and trained the Manchurian Imperial Army. Its core was the North-Eastern Army of General Zhang Xueliang, numbering up to 160 thousand people. The main problem of these troops was the low quality of the personnel; many were poorly trained, and there were large numbers of opium addicts in the army. The Manchu troops were prone to desertion. So, in August 1932, 2000 soldiers deserted from the Wukumiho garrison, and the 7th Cavalry Brigade mutinied. All of these forces joined the Chinese guerrillas fighting the Japanese.

Manchukuo had his own navy.

Demography

Train station in Xinjing

As of 1934, the population of Manchukuo was 30 million 880 thousand people. On average, there were 6.1 people per family, the ratio of men to women was 1.22 to 1. The population consisted of 29 million 510 thousand Chinese, 590 thousand 796 Japanese, 680 thousand Koreans, 98 thousand 431 representatives of other nationalities. 80% of the population lived in villages.

During the existence of Manchukuo, the population of this territory increased by 18 million people.

In 1934, Japan was considering the Fugu Plan to attract from 18,000 to 600,000 Jews to Manchukuo. This plan arose at a time when the USSR began to form the Jewish Autonomous Region (formed in 1934) on part of the territory of the former Outer Manchuria. In 1938, the plan sparked fierce debate at a cabinet conference. In 1941, the implementation of the plan was completely interrupted.

In Japan, there was practically no Jewish population, and the "Plan Fugu" appeared under the influence of naive ideas about the Jews, as people with great financial opportunities, capable of turning Manchukuo into a "profitable colony." This plan was actually never implemented, the number of Jewish refugees who arrived from Europe to Japan and the territories controlled by it amounted to only a few thousand people. To the dismay of the Japanese, most Jews fled Europe literally empty-handed.

The emergence of Manchukuo - Territory and administrative structure - International recognition - Oath of Pu Yi - Emperor of the Great Manchurian Empire - Peaceful fate of Zaifeng - Japanese tutelage - Visits to Japan

Japan took over Manchuria in 1931. Pu Yi was 25 at the time. On the initiative of the Fourth Division of the Kwantung Army, on February 23, 1932, the All-Manchurian Assembly was held, declaring the independence of Northeast China. A new state appeared - Manchukuo (滿洲國).

It was a fairly large power with an area of ​​1,165,000 square meters. km. By modern standards, it would take the twenty-sixth largest in the world - between South Africa and Colombia. The population of Manchukuo was 30 million people. Administratively, the country was divided into anto - an ancient Manchu administrative-territorial unit, similar to a province. In 1932, Manchukuo consisted of five anto, as it was during the Qing Dynasty. In 1941, a reform was carried out and the number of antos increased to nineteen. Anto was divided into prefectures.

Also in the structure of Manchukuo there was a special region of Peiman and two special cities - Xingjin (Changchun, the capital of the country) and Harbin. Peiman enjoyed the status of a special region from July 1, 1933 to January 1, 1936. Harbin eventually became part of the province of Binjiang.

The League of Nations, based on the Report of a commission led by Victor Bulwer-Lytton, determined that Manchuria was still an integral part of China and refused to recognize the new state, which led to the withdrawal of the Great Japanese Empire or League. Meanwhile, individual states recognized Manchukuo and established diplomatic relations with the Empire. Among these powers, different years included El Salvador, the Dominican Republic, the USSR (since March 1933, the Consulate of Manchukuo-Di-Go worked in Chita), Italy, Spain, Germany, Hungary. After the outbreak of World War II, Manchukuo was recognized by Slovakia, France, Romania, Bulgaria, Finland, Denmark, Croatia, the Chinese regime of Wang Jingwei, Thailand and the Philippines. It is widely believed that the Vatican also established diplomatic ties with Manchukuo, but this is a misconception. Bishop Auguste Gaspé was indeed appointed ad tempus representative of the Holy See and the Catholic Mission to the Government of Manchukuo, but the appointment took place through the Congregation De Propaganda Fide (Propagation of the Faith), and not the Secretariat of State of the Holy See, and Bishop Gaspé did not have diplomatic powers, answering only for missionary work.

Shortly before the creation of Manchukuo, Pu Yi, during an ancestral worship ceremony, swore an oath during a sacrifice:

“It is hard to look at the disasters experienced by the people for twenty years and be powerless to help them. Now that the people of the three northeastern provinces are giving me support and a friendly power is helping me, the situation in the country is forcing me to take responsibility and come to the defense of the state. When you start something, you cannot know in advance whether it will be successful.
But I remember examples of sovereigns who had to restore their throne in the past. For example, the Jin prince Wen Gong defeated the Qin prince Mugong, the Han emperor Guang Wudi overthrew the emperor Gengshi, the founder of the Shu state defeated Liu Biao and Yuan-nao, the founder of the Ming dynasty defeated Han Lin'er. All of them, in order to fulfill their great mission, had to resort to external help. Now I, covered with shame, want to take on a great responsibility and continue a great cause, no matter how difficult it may be. I want to devote all my strength to the sure salvation of the people, and I will act very carefully.
In front of the graves of my ancestors, I sincerely speak about my desires and ask them for protection and help.
(Based on the book "The Last Emperor", Moscow, Vagrius 2006)

When Pu Yi learned that the Japanese saw him as the head of a new state, he agreed to their proposal. His goal was to restore the lost heritage of the ancestors. However, on March 9, 1932, he received from the Emperor of Japan only the title of Supreme Ruler of Manchuria (in fact, the Japanese governor) with the motto of the reign of Datong (大同), which was for him, not only the rightful heir to the Dragon Throne, but also a descendant of Nurhaci and Abahai, the creators of Manchukuo, the unifiers of the Jurchen tribes, with the deepest disappointment.

Later, in 1934, the Japanese finally agreed to the adoption of Pu Yi the title of Emperor of Manchukuo, or rather Da-Manchukuo-Di-Guo (大滿洲帝國) - the Great Manchurian Empire. In the early morning of March 1, 1934, in Sinuatsun, a suburb of the capital of Manchuo-Guo, Changchun (later renamed Xinjing - "New Capital"), an ancient ceremony was held for the accession of the emperor to the throne. Then, dressed in the uniform of a generalissimo, Pu Yi went to Changchun, where another coronation took place. Pu Yi adopted the throne name and reign motto of Kangde (康德). With all the splendor of the title of Emperor of the Great Manchurian Empire, everyone understood the puppetry of the newly-made emperor, who had no real political power. The Japanese planned to use Pu Yi, including as an agent of influence against China. For fourteen years, from 1932 to 1945, Pu Yi was the puppet ruler of Manchukuo, completely subject to Japan. Pu Yi did not really have his own power. His ministers only reported the state of affairs to their Japanese deputies, who carried out the real management of the ministries. They never came to Pu Yi with reports. Yoshioka Yasunori, a lieutenant general of the Japanese army, who spoke Chinese, became an attaché at the imperial court and an adviser to the Kwantung Army. He was inseparably with the emperor, controlling his every step.

It must be said that Pu Yi's father, the Second Grand Duke Chun Zaifeng, was initially against the proposal of the Japanese and did not support the idea of ​​creating Manchukuo. After the Xinhai Revolution, Zaifeng lived in Beijing, in his Northern Palace. The new leaders of China appreciated his prudence and peaceful relinquishment of power, and Zaifeng lived peacefully in peace surrounded by respect. In 1928, Zaifeng moved to Tianjing, where he lived in the British and Japanese concessions, but after a devastating flood, the former Prince Chun returned to Beijing.

During the reign of Pu Yi in the Manchu Empire, Zaifeng paid his son three visits, but remained in new country refused. After 1949, when the Communists came to power in China, nothing much changed for Zaifeng again. Unless, in order to overcome financial difficulties, the Northern Palace had to be sold to the government. Then, in gratitude for the good attitude, Zaifeng donated his library and art collection to Peking University. Zaifeng did a lot of charity work, participated in public life. Died on February 3, 1951 in Beijing.

As for Manchukuo-Di-Guo, the actual power here was in the hands of the commander of the Kwantung Army, who simultaneously acted as the ambassador of the Japanese Emperor at the court of the Emperor Kangde. It was the Japanese commander who made all the most important government decisions, and the army of Manchukuo-Di-Go was subordinate to him. At the same time, the only guarantor of the country's independence was the Japanese Kwantung Army. From 1932 to 1945, six people replaced each other in the posts of commander of the Kwantung Army and Japanese ambassador to the Kangde Emperor.
From August 8, 1932 to July 27, 1933 Field Marshal Baron Muto Nobuyoshi commanded the Kwantung Army.
From July 29, 1933 to December 10, 1934 - General Hisikari Takashi.
From December 10, 1934 to March 6, 1936 - General Hiro Minami.
From March 6, 1936 to September 7, 1939 - General Kenkichi Ueda.
From September 7, 1939 to July 18, 1944 - Umezu Yoshijira.
And from July 18, 1944 to August 11, 1945 - General Yamata Otozo.

In March 1931, the leadership of the Kwantung Army, represented by S. Itagaki, the Japanese ambassador to Manchuria and the commander-in-chief of the Japanese army, decided that the Manchu-Mongolian problem would be solved only if these territories were subordinated to Japan. Based on this decision, a document was developed and approved, which was called the “Report on the Management of Occupied Manchuria”. Bogaturov A.D. Great powers on pacific ocean. History and theory of international relations in East Asia after the Second World War 1945-1995, M., 1997. 353p. The plans of this document included the decision to create from Manchuria a state under the control of Japan, as a military government, in which local government officials are in power. It was also decided in advance that the head of administration would be puppet emperor Pu Yi, who was the last Chinese emperor.

On February 18, 1932, a new republic was created by the Japanese and at the same time the "Declaration of Independence of Manchuria and Mongolia" was published, which finally gave sovereignty to the Northeastern provinces. The plans of the new government were to create a single powerful sovereign state of Manchukuo. The declaration said: "" Manchuria and Mongolia begin new life. In ancient times, Manchuria and Mongolia were annexed and separated more than once, but now the natural connection has been restored.” Shirokorad A. Japan. Unfinished rivalry, M., 2008. 464s.

In 1931, Pu Yi received an offer to head the new state of Manchukuo. Pu Yi had long dreamed of the imperial crown, yes, he had no choice. There.

Having placed the Chinese emperor at the head of Manchukuo, the Japanese planned to involve the local Chinese bourgeoisie in the management of the new state, and it was also planned to create institutions under the emperor that would allow the state system of Manchukuo to be adapted to the Japanese system of bourgeois-monarchical power. Zakharova G.F. Japanese policy in Manchuria. 1932-1945, M., 1990. 266s.

On March 8, 1932, Pu Yi and his wife Wan Zhen arrived in Changchun (?¬K). The Japanese greeted them magnificently, giving them a performance with a military band. Such a beginning gave Pu Yi the hope that if he worked with the Japanese, then from the position of Supreme Ruler he would be able to restore his imperial title. The day after his arrival, Pu Yi's inauguration ceremony was held. Pu Yi was crowned as Kang Te. The capital of the new state was the city of Xinjing (ђV‹ћ). Usov V. The Last Emperor of China Pu Yi, M., 2003. 416s. Along with the change in the name of the capital, the administrative-territorial division of Manchuria also changed: instead of three provinces (Heilongjiang, Fengtian and Jilin), they formed two special cities (Xinjing and Harbin) and 12 dwarf provinces (Andong, Fengtian, Jinzhou, Jilin, Rehe, Jiandao, Heihe, Sanjiang, Longjiang, Bingjiang, Guanandong, Guananxi, Guannannan and Guananbei). Amur State University//General characteristics of the system of higher state organizations of Manchukuo .pdf (accessed 05/19/2016)

The basic principles of the state organization of Manchukuo were spelled out in the "Declaration on the Formation of the New State of Manchukuo". So, the form of government of Manchukuo was a limited monarchy. The main institutions of the system of higher state bodies were: the Emperor, the Supreme Council, the Legislative Chamber, the Sehehui organization, the State Council, the Supreme Court. According to the law, the emperor had broad powers; under him, bodies were established that were completely subordinate to him, such as: the Military Council or the Ministry of the Imperial Court. There.

Despite the fact that, according to the law, Pu Yi had broad powers, in fact, all power was entirely in the hands of the Japanese, Seishiro Itagaki was a particularly significant person. As Pu Yi wrote in his memoirs: "I did not even have the right to go outside my residence." Pu Yi. The Last Emperor, M., 2006. 576 p. “Each decision of the Pu Yi government was negotiated by the headquarters of the Kwantung Army…”. Zakharova G. F. The politics of Japan…

By 1933, there were at least 3,000 Japanese advisers to the state administration in the state apparatus of Manchukuo. Everyone, from the department to the ordinary employee, did their job under supervision. Usov V. The Last Emperor of China…

In order to raise the international status of the new state, the Japanese tried in every possible way to achieve its recognition by other countries. Thus, on November 1, 1937, Manchukuo with its puppet regime was recognized by Italy, and on December 2 of the same year by Spain. In 1938, Germany and Poland also recognized the new state. Karaeva K. A. Manchukuo and international relationships in the Far East. 1931-1945, EKB., 2005. 89s.

To continue their aggressive policy, the Japanese needed to strengthen the Manchurian foothold. For this, the 150,000th Kwantung Army was deployed in Manchukuo, which consisted of trained and well-armed soldiers who implicitly obeyed their commanders. The army was intended to "defend the people of Manchuria from the Chinese Bolsheviks, the Kuomintang and other bandits." Usov V. The Last Emperor of China Pu Yi, M., 2003. 416s.

The Japanese paid special attention to the construction of prisons and labor camps, as they were overcrowded and there were not enough places for all the "criminals". In 1935, an order was issued on the "rational use" of 22 places of detention due to the great need for labor for the construction of a new state, the prisoners also had to carry out labor duties. Zakharova G. F. The politics of Japan…

Reforms were carried out in education. Since Manchukuo needed new personnel, the education and training of young people was given Special attention. All subjects in schools were taught in Japanese, and such a subject as "Great Japan" appeared in the curriculum. In all educational institutions a pro-fascist way of thinking and the ideology of militarism were imposed on students. Successful students whose ideological sentiments were in line with the Japanese government were sent to study in Japan. There.

Later, the Sehehui (?©M?) organization was established. She occupied a special place in the system supreme bodies states. Her honorary adviser was the commander of the Kwantung Army, General Inoue. Anyone could join it: people living in Manchukuo, and those who lived outside of it. The main requirement for joining the organization was the sharing of the ideas of this organization. The main functions of the organization were: to instill in the people respect and loyalty to Japan and the belief that Japan is the savior of Asia from the national government of China. The organization also partially performed the duties of the Legislative Chamber and intelligence functions. Amur State University//General characteristics of the system of higher state organizations in Manchukuo URL: http://www.amursu.ru/attachments/article/9535/N48_8.pdf

Thus, the Sehehui Society became the main pillar of the Kwantung Army. pro-Japanese puppet Manchukuo

On April 28, 1932, the Daily Manchurian Newspaper began to be published in the capital. In one of her articles it was said: “1312 thousand square meters. km of territory, stretching from north to south for 1700 km and from east to west for 1400 km, represent the widest field of activity for the liberated 30 million Manchu population. Warmed by the rising sun of the Yamato Empire, it begins to turn over the pages of the history of its free development, and it is no longer threatened by either the colonial expansion of the West, or communist aggression from the USSR or agents of the Comintern from Beijing or Nanjing ”Usov V. The Last Emperor of China ...

The cinemas showed various Japanese documentaries showing the invincibility of the Kwantung Army in various battles with China.

K: Appeared in 1932 K: Disappeared in 1945

Manchu-go, Manchuria(Chinese 滿洲國, State of Manchuria(Chinese 大滿洲帝國), "Damanzhou-digo" (Great Manchurian Empire)) - a puppet state (empire) formed by the Japanese military administration on the territory of Manchuria occupied by Japan; existed from March 1, 1932 to August 19, 1945. It bordered the Empire of Japan, the MPR, the USSR, Mengjiang, and the Republic of China.

In fact, Manchukuo was controlled by Japan and followed entirely in line with its policy. In the city, the armed forces of Manchukuo took part in the battles on the Khalkhin Gol River (in Japanese historiography - “The Incident at Nomonkhan”). During the Soviet-Japanese war, Manchukuo ceased to exist. On August 19, 1945, Emperor Pu Yi was captured at Fengtian Airport by Red Army paratroopers. The territory of Manchukuo became part of the People's Republic of China.

Story

The clash of Russian and Japanese interests led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, as a result of which Russian influence in Manchuria was replaced by Japanese. In the period between 1925 and 1925, Japan significantly increases its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic leverage.

During the Russian Civil War of 1918-1921, Japan took advantage of Russia's weakening and occupied Outer Manchuria. Manchuria became the arena of struggle between Russia, Japan and China.

A buffer Far Eastern Republic was formed between Soviet Russia and Japan, but the further strengthening of the Bolshevik regime and disagreements between the Western powers and Japan led to the withdrawal of the occupying forces in 1925 and the restoration of Russian jurisdiction.

The commander of the Kwantung Army was also the Japanese ambassador to Manchukuo and had the right to veto the emperor's decisions. From 1932 to 1945, 6 people replaced each other in this post:

1. Nobuyoshi Muto (August 8, 1932 – July 25, 1933)
2. Takashi Hisikari (July 29, 1933 – December 10, 1934)
3. Jiro Minami (December 10, 1934 – March 6, 1936)
4. Kenkichi Ueda (March 6, 1936 – September 7, 1939)
5. Yoshijiro Umezu (September 7, 1939 – July 18, 1944)
6. Otozo Yamada (July 18, 1944 – August 11, 1945).

There was a Legislative Assembly in the state, whose role was actually reduced to the formal approval of the decisions of the State Council. The only political party allowed was the government-funded Concord Society; in addition to him, several emigrant groups, in particular, Russian emigrants, were allowed to organize their own political movements (see, for example, the Russian Fascist Party, Bureau of Russian Emigrants in the Manchurian Empire).

Administrative division

Concord Society

The Accord Society played a key role in Manchukuo. Its name is explained by the pan-Asian concept of the "consent of peoples" put forward by the Japanese, which assumed the self-determination of various Asian peoples along the lines of the Soviet model of the "union of peoples". At the same time, the coexistence of various nationalities was assumed strictly within the framework of a single centralized state, which could help to avoid possible weakening. The Concord Society assumed self-organization within separate communities for different nationalities; it included Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, Japanese, Muslims, Russian emigrants and a Chinese majority. At the same time, the organization was characterized by reliance on traditional religious leaders for each community.

The society was conceived as the main political force of Manchukuo, designed to replace the Kwantung Army in this capacity. However, in reality, the Concord Society has become an ideological tool in the hands of the Japanese military. In the mid-1930s, the leadership of the Kwantung Army ordered the society to purge its leaders, who were accused of left-wing sympathies. After the purge, the organization became, in fact, no different from its progenitors - the fascist parties of Europe of that time, standing on the positions of anti-communism and corporatism, and was transformed for mobilization purposes.

All civil servants, up to teachers, and all important figures of society were included in the society. Young people aged 16 to 19, starting in 1937, were automatically enrolled in the organization. By 1943, up to 10% of the population of Manchuria was in society.

Although formally a one-party system was not established in Manchukuo, in fact the only political party allowed was the Concord Society. An exception to this rule were various political movements of immigrants living in Manchuria.

Military establishment

The Kwantung Army, the Japanese army group in the Far East, played a key role in the creation and further life of Manchukuo. The decision to seize Manchuria in 1932 was made by the command of the Kwantung Army arbitrarily, without the consent of the Japanese Parliament.

The Kwantung Army formed and trained the Manchurian Imperial Army. Its core was the North-Eastern Army of General Zhang Xueliang, numbering up to 160 thousand people. The main problem of these troops was the low quality of the personnel; many were poorly trained, and there were large numbers of opium addicts in the army. The Manchu troops were prone to desertion. So, in August 1932, 2000 soldiers deserted from the Wukumiho garrison, and the 7th Cavalry Brigade mutinied. All of these forces joined the Chinese guerrillas fighting the Japanese.

Manchukuo had his own navy.

Demography

coal industry

In 1933, the Japan-Manchuria Coal Company was established, and coal production increased 3.6 times (25.6 million tons) in 1932-1944.

Metallurgy

There were two large metallurgical enterprises in Manchukuo: the Anshan plant, where iron production increased from 276 tons to 1.3 million tons in 1931-1943, and the plant in Benxi, which increased iron smelting from 65 thousand tons in 1931-1944. .tons up to 370 thousand tons.

mechanical engineering

The engineering industry of Manchukuo was represented by the Manchurian Bearing Factory, the Dalian Railway Factory, the Manchurian Vehicle Factory.

Chemical industry

The lack of oil forced Tokyo to start up the Fushun coal liquefaction plant in Manchukuo in 1939, as well as a similar enterprise in Siping.

Currency unit

Monetary unit - yuan (1 yuan = 10 jiao = 100 fen = 1000 li)

see also

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Notes

3. see Japan-Manchurian Protocol
4. Nish, Ian Hill (2002) Japanese foreign policy in the interwar period, Westport, CT: Praeger, p. 95, ISBN 0275947912.
5. Lu, David John (2002) Agony of choice: Matsuoka Yōsuke and the rise and fall of the Japanese Empire, 1880-1946, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, p. 83, ISBN 0739104586.
10. Alexandrova M. V. Japanese capital and its importance in the industry of Northeast China ( late XIX in. - 1945) // China in world and regional politics. History and modernity. - 2014. - T. 19. - No. 19. - S. 343-344
11. Alexandrova M.V. Japanese capital and its significance in the industry of Northeast China (end of the 19th century - 1945) // China in world and regional politics. History and modernity. - 2014. - T. 19. - No. 19. - S. 345-346
12. Alexandrova M.V. Japanese capital and its significance in the industry of Northeast China (end of the 19th century - 1945) // China in world and regional politics. History and modernity. - 2014. - T. 19. - No. 19. - S. 346-347
13. Alexandrova M.V. Japanese capital and its significance in the industry of Northeast China (end of the 19th century - 1945) // China in world and regional politics. History and modernity. - 2014. - T. 19. - No. 19. - S. 348-349
14. Alexandrova M.V. Japanese capital and its significance in the industry of Northeast China (end of the 19th century - 1945) // China in world and regional politics. History and modernity. - 2014. - T. 19. - No. 19. - S. 350

Literature

• Aurilene E. E. Russian Diaspora in China: Manchuria. Northern China. Shanghai (1920 - 50s). Khabarovsk, 2003;
• Aurilene E. E., Potapova I.V. Russians in Manchukuo-Di-Go: Emigrant Government. Khabarovsk, 2004.
• Bisson T. A. Military economy of Japan / transl. from English. - M.: Publishing house of foreign literature, 1949.
• Joett F. Japanese army. 1931-1942 / transl. from English. - M.: ACT: Astrel, 2003.
• Zakharova G. F. Japanese policy in Manchuria, 1932-1945. - M.: Nauka, 1990.
• Kara-Murza G.S. Manchukuo is a Japanese colony in Manchuria. Chita, 1944.
• Usov V.N.. - M .: Olma-press, 2003. - 415 p. - ISBN 5-224-04249-6.

Story State symbols State structure External relations Economy Army

Metropolis China Other member countries Candidate Territories

An excerpt characterizing Manchukuo

Pierre could no longer take it upon himself to turn away and close his eyes. The curiosity and excitement of him and the whole crowd at this fifth murder reached the highest degree. Like the others, this fifth one seemed calm: he wrapped his robe and scratched one bare foot against the other.
When they began to blindfold him, he straightened the very knot on the back of his head, which cut him; then, when they leaned him against a bloodied post, he fell back, and, as he was uncomfortable in this position, he recovered and, putting his legs straight, leaned calmly. Pierre did not take his eyes off him, not missing the slightest movement.
A command must have been heard; after the command, shots of eight guns must have been heard. But Pierre, no matter how much he tried to remember later, did not hear the slightest sound from the shots. He only saw how, for some reason, the factory worker suddenly sank down on the ropes, how blood appeared in two places, and how the very ropes, from the weight of the hanging body, unraveled and the factory worker, unnaturally lowering his head and twisting his leg, sat down. Pierre ran up to the post. Nobody held him back. Frightened, pale people were doing something around the factory. An old, mustachioed Frenchman's jaw shook as he untied the ropes. The body went down. The soldiers awkwardly and hurriedly dragged him behind a post and began to push him into the pit.
Everyone, apparently, undoubtedly knew that they were criminals who needed to cover up the traces of their crime as soon as possible.
Pierre looked into the pit and saw that the factory worker was lying there with his knees up, close to his head, one shoulder higher than the other. And this shoulder convulsively, evenly fell and rose. But already shovels of earth were falling all over the body. One of the soldiers angrily, viciously and painfully shouted at Pierre to return. But Pierre did not understand him and stood at the post, and no one drove him away.
When the pit was already filled up, a command was heard. Pierre was taken to his place, and the French troops, standing in fronts on both sides of the pillar, made a half-turn and began to walk past the pillar with measured steps. Twenty-four men of riflemen with unloaded rifles, standing in the middle of the circle, ran up to their places, while the companies passed by them.
Pierre was now looking with meaningless eyes at these shooters, who ran out of the circle in pairs. All but one joined the companies. A young soldier with a deadly pale face, in a shako that fell back, having lowered his gun, was still standing opposite the pit in the place from which he fired. He staggered like a drunk, taking a few steps forward and then back to support his falling body. An old soldier, a non-commissioned officer, ran out of the ranks and, grabbing a young soldier by the shoulder, dragged him into the company. The crowd of Russians and French began to disperse. Everyone walked in silence, with their heads bowed.
- Ca leur apprendra a incendier, [This will teach them to set fire.] - said one of the French. Pierre looked back at the speaker and saw that he was a soldier who wanted to console himself with something in what had been done, but could not. Without finishing what he started, he waved his hand and walked away.

After the execution, Pierre was separated from the other defendants and left alone in a small, ruined and filthy church.
Before evening, the guard non-commissioned officer with two soldiers entered the church and announced to Pierre that he was forgiven and was now entering the barracks of prisoners of war. Not understanding what they told him, Pierre got up and went with the soldiers. He was led to the booths built at the top of the field from burnt boards, logs and hews and entered into one of them. In the darkness about twenty different people surrounded Pierre. Pierre looked at them, not understanding who these people were, why they were and what they wanted from him. He heard the words that were spoken to him, but did not draw any conclusion or application from them: he did not understand their meaning. He himself answered what was asked of him, but did not understand who was listening to him and how his answers would be understood. He looked at faces and figures, and they all seemed equally meaningless to him.
From the moment Pierre saw this terrible murder committed by people who did not want to do this, it was as if in his soul that spring was suddenly pulled out, on which everything was supported and seemed to be alive, and everything fell into a heap of senseless rubbish. In him, although he did not realize himself, faith was destroyed in the improvement of the world, and in the human, and in his soul, and in God. This state was experienced by Pierre before, but never with such force as now. Before, when such doubts were found on Pierre, these doubts had their source of guilt. And in the very depths of his soul, Pierre then felt that from that despair and those doubts there was salvation in himself. But now he felt that it was not his fault that the world had collapsed in his eyes and only meaningless ruins remained. He felt that it was not in his power to return to faith in life.
Around him in the darkness stood people: it is true that something interested them very much in him. They told him something, asked about something, then they took him somewhere, and he finally found himself in the corner of the booth next to some people who were talking from different sides, laughing.
“And now, my brothers ... the same prince who (with a special emphasis on the word which) ...” said a voice in the opposite corner of the booth.
Silently and motionlessly sitting against the wall on the straw, Pierre first opened and then closed his eyes. But as soon as he closed his eyes, he saw before him the same terrible, especially terrible in its simplicity, the face of a factory worker and the faces of unwitting murderers, even more terrible in their anxiety. And he opened his eyes again and stared senselessly in the darkness around him.
Sitting next to him, bent over, was a small man, whose presence Pierre noticed at first by the strong smell of sweat that separated from him with his every movement. This man was doing something in the dark with his legs, and, despite the fact that Pierre did not see his face, he felt that this man was constantly looking at him. Looking closely in the darkness, Pierre realized that this man was taking off his shoes. And the way he did it interested Pierre.
Unwinding the twine with which one leg was tied, he carefully folded the twine and immediately set to work on the other leg, looking at Pierre. While one hand was hanging the string, the other was already beginning to unwind the other leg. Thus, in neat, round, argumentative movements that followed one after another without slowing down, the man took off his shoes and hung his shoes on pegs driven in above his heads, took out a knife, cut something, folded the knife, put it under the head of the head and, having sat down better, hugged his raised knees with both hands and stared directly at Pierre. Pierre felt something pleasant, soothing and round in these contentious movements, in this well-organized household in the corner, in the smell of even this man, and he, without taking his eyes off, looked at him.
- And you saw a lot of need, master? BUT? said the little man suddenly. And such an expression of affection and simplicity was in the melodious voice of a man that Pierre wanted to answer, but his jaw trembled, and he felt tears. The little man at the same moment, without giving Pierre time to show his embarrassment, spoke in the same pleasant voice.
“Hey, falcon, don’t grieve,” he said with that softly melodious caress with which old Russian women speak. - Do not grieve, my friend: endure an hour, but live a century! That's it, my dear. And we live here, thank God, there is no offense. There are good and bad people, too,” he said, and, still speaking, with a flexible movement he leaned over on his knees, stood up and, clearing his throat, went somewhere.
- Look, rogue, come! - Pierre heard the same gentle voice at the end of the booth. - The rogue has come, remembers! Well, well, you will. - And the soldier, pushing away the little dog that jumped towards him, returned to his place and sat down. In his hands was something wrapped in a rag.
“Here, eat, master,” he said, again returning to his former respectful tone and unwrapping and serving Pierre several baked potatoes. - There was stew at dinner. And the potatoes are important!
Pierre had not eaten all day, and the smell of potatoes seemed to him unusually pleasant. He thanked the soldier and began to eat.
- Well, so then? - the soldier said smiling and took one of the potatoes. - And here's how you are. - He again took out a folding knife, cut the potatoes into equal two halves in his palm, sprinkled salt from a rag and brought it to Pierre.
“Potatoes are important,” he repeated. - You eat like this.
It seemed to Pierre that he had never eaten food tastier than this.
“No, it’s all right for me,” said Pierre, “but why did they shoot these unfortunate ones! .. Last years twenty.
“Tsk, tsk…” said the little man. “That’s a sin, that’s a sin ...” he quickly added, and, as if his words were always ready in his mouth and inadvertently flew out of him, he continued: “What is it, sir, did you stay in Moscow like that?
I didn't think they would come so soon. I accidentally stayed, - said Pierre.
- But how did they take you, falcon, from your house?
- No, I went to the fire, and then they grabbed me, they tried me for an arsonist.
“Where there is judgment, there is untruth,” put in the little man.
– How long have you been here? asked Pierre, chewing the last potato.
– I that? That Sunday I was taken from the hospital in Moscow.
Who are you, soldier?
- Soldiers of the Apsheron regiment. He died of a fever. They didn't tell us anything. There were twenty of our people. And they didn’t think, they didn’t guess.
- Well, are you bored here? Pierre asked.
- How boring, falcon. Call me Plato; Karataev’s nickname, ”he added, apparently in order to make it easier for Pierre to address him. - Nicknamed Falcon in the service. How not to be bored, falcon! Moscow, she is the mother of cities. How not to get bored looking at it. Yes, the worm is worse than cabbage, but before that you yourself disappear: that’s what the old people used to say, ”he added quickly.
- How, how did you say that? Pierre asked.
– I that? asked Karataev. “I say: not by our mind, but by God’s judgment,” he said, thinking that he was repeating what he had said. And immediately he continued: - How do you, master, have patrimonies? And do you have a house? So, a full bowl! And is there a hostess? Are the old parents still alive? he asked, and although Pierre did not see in the dark, he felt that the soldier's lips were wrinkled with a restrained smile of affection while he was asking this. He, apparently, was upset that Pierre did not have parents, especially a mother.
- A wife for advice, a mother-in-law for greetings, but there is no sweeter mother! - he said. - Well, do you have kids? he continued to ask. Pierre's negative answer again, apparently, upset him, and he hastened to add: - Well, young people, God willing, they will. If only to live in the council ...
“But now it doesn’t matter,” Pierre involuntarily said.
“Oh, you are a dear person,” Plato objected. - Never refuse the bag and the prison. He settled himself better, cleared his throat, apparently preparing himself for a long story. “So, my dear friend, I was still living at home,” he began. “Our patrimony is rich, there is a lot of land, the peasants live well, and our house, thank God. The father himself went out to mow. We lived well. Christians were real. It happened ... - And Platon Karataev told a long story about how he went to a strange grove beyond the forest and got caught by the watchman, how he was flogged, tried and handed over to the soldiers. “Well, falcon,” he said in a voice that changed from a smile, “they thought grief, but joy!” Brother would go, if not my sin. And the younger brother himself has five guys, - and I, look, have one soldier left. There was a girl, and even before the soldiery, God tidied up. I came to visit, I'll tell you. I look - they live better than before. The yard is full of stomachs, women are at home, two brothers are working. One Mikhailo, the smaller one, is at home. The father says: “To me, he says, all the children are equal: no matter what finger you bite, everything hurts. And if Plato had not been shaved then, Mikhail would have gone. He called us all - you believe - he put us in front of the image. Mikhailo, he says, come here, bow at his feet, and you, woman, bow, and bow to your grandchildren. Got it? He speaks. So, my dear friend. Rock heads looking. And we judge everything: it’s not good, it’s not okay. Our happiness, my friend, is like water in a nonsense: you pull - it puffed up, and you pull it out - there is nothing. So that. And Plato sat down on his straw.
After a few moments of silence, Plato stood up.
- Well, I'm tea, do you want to sleep? - he said and quickly began to cross himself, saying:
- Lord Jesus Christ, Saint Nicholas, Frola and Lavra, Lord Jesus Christ, Saint Nicholas! Frola and Lavra, Lord Jesus Christ - have mercy and save us! - he concluded, bowed to the ground, got up and, sighing, sat down on his straw. - That's it. Put, God, a pebble, raise a ball, - he said and lay down, pulling on his overcoat.
What prayer did you read? Pierre asked.
- Ash? - Plato said (he was already asleep). - Read what? He prayed to God. And don't you pray?
“No, and I pray,” said Pierre. - But what did you say: Frola and Lavra?
- But what about, - Plato answered quickly, - a horse festival. And you need to feel sorry for the cattle, - said Karataev. - Look, the rogue, curled up. You've warmed up, you son of a bitch," he said, feeling the dog at his feet, and, turning again, immediately fell asleep.
Outside, weeping and shouting were heard somewhere in the distance, and fire was visible through the cracks of the booth; but it was quiet and dark in the booth. Pierre did not sleep for a long time and, with open eyes, lay in the darkness in his place, listening to the measured snoring of Plato, who lay beside him, and felt that the previously destroyed world was now being erected in his soul with new beauty, on some new and unshakable foundations.

In the booth, which Pierre entered and in which he stayed for four weeks, there were twenty-three captured soldiers, three officers and two officials.
All of them then appeared to Pierre as if in a fog, but Platon Karataev remained forever in Pierre's soul the most powerful and dearest memory and personification of everything Russian, kind and round. When the next day, at dawn, Pierre saw his neighbor, the first impression of something round was completely confirmed: the whole figure of Plato in his French overcoat belted with a rope, in a cap and bast shoes, was round, his head was completely round, back, chest, shoulders, even the arms that he wore, as if always about to embrace something, were round; a pleasant smile and large brown gentle eyes were round.
Platon Karataev must have been over fifty years old, judging by his stories about the campaigns in which he participated as a longtime soldier. He himself did not know and could not in any way determine how old he was; but his teeth, bright white and strong, which all rolled out in their two semicircles when he laughed (as he often did), were all good and whole; not a single gray hair was in his beard and hair, and his whole body had the appearance of flexibility and especially hardness and endurance.
His face, despite the small round wrinkles, had an expression of innocence and youth; his voice was pleasant and melodious. But main feature his speech was immediacy and argumentative. He apparently never thought about what he said and what he would say; and from this there was a special irresistible persuasiveness in the speed and fidelity of his intonations.
His physical strength and agility were such during the first time of captivity that he did not seem to understand what fatigue and illness were. Every day in the morning and in the evening, lying down, he said: “Lord, put it down with a pebble, raise it up with a ball”; in the morning, getting up, always shrugging his shoulders in the same way, he would say: “Lie down - curl up, get up - shake yourself.” And indeed, as soon as he lay down to immediately fall asleep like a stone, and as soon as he shook himself, in order to immediately, without a second of delay, take up some business, the children, having risen, take up toys. He knew how to do everything, not very well, but not badly either. He baked, steamed, sewed, planed, made boots. He was always busy and only at night allowed himself to talk, which he loved, and songs. He sang songs, not like songwriters sing, knowing that they are being listened to, but he sang like birds sing, obviously because it was just as necessary for him to make these sounds, as it is necessary to stretch or disperse; and these sounds were always subtle, tender, almost feminine, mournful, and his face was very serious at the same time.
Having been taken prisoner and overgrown with a beard, he, apparently, threw away everything that was put on him, alien, soldierly, and involuntarily returned to the former, peasant, people's warehouse.
“A soldier on leave is a shirt made of trousers,” he used to say. He reluctantly spoke about his time as a soldier, although he did not complain, and often repeated that he had never been beaten during his entire service. When he told, he mainly told from his old and, apparently, dear memories of the "Christian", as he pronounced, peasant life. The proverbs that filled his speech were not those, for the most part, indecent and glib sayings that the soldiers say, but these were those folk sayings that seem so insignificant, taken separately, and which suddenly acquire the meaning of deep wisdom when they are said by the way.
Often he said exactly the opposite of what he had said before, but both were true. He loved to talk and spoke well, embellishing his speech with endearing and proverbs, which, it seemed to Pierre, he himself invented; but the main charm of his stories was that in his speech the simplest events, sometimes the very ones that, without noticing them, Pierre saw, took on the character of solemn decorum. He liked to listen to the tales that one soldier told in the evenings (all the same), but most of all he liked to listen to stories about real life. He smiled joyfully as he listened to such stories, inserting words and asking questions that tended to make clear to himself the beauty of what was being told to him. Attachments, friendship, love, as Pierre understood them, Karataev did not have any; but he loved and lived lovingly with everything that life brought him, and especially with a person - not with some famous person, but with those people who were before his eyes. He loved his mutt, loved his comrades, the French, loved Pierre, who was his neighbor; but Pierre felt that Karataev, in spite of all his affectionate tenderness for him (which he involuntarily paid tribute to Pierre's spiritual life), would not have been upset for a minute by parting from him. And Pierre began to experience the same feeling for Karataev.
Platon Karataev was for all the other prisoners the most ordinary soldier; his name was falcon or Platosha, they good-naturedly mocked him, sent him for parcels. But for Pierre, as he presented himself on the first night, an incomprehensible, round and eternal personification of the spirit of simplicity and truth, he remained so forever.
Platon Karataev knew nothing by heart, except for his prayer. When he spoke his speeches, he, starting them, seemed not to know how he would end them.
When Pierre, sometimes struck by the meaning of his speech, asked to repeat what was said, Plato could not remember what he had said a minute ago, just as he could not in any way tell Pierre his favorite song with words. There it was: “dear, birch and I feel sick,” but the words did not make any sense. He did not understand and could not understand the meaning of words taken separately from the speech. Every word of his and every action was a manifestation of an activity unknown to him, which was his life. But his life, as he himself looked at it, had no meaning as a separate life. It only made sense as a part of the whole, which he constantly felt. His words and actions poured out of him as evenly, as necessary and immediately, as a scent separates from a flower. He could not understand either the price or the meaning of a single action or word.

Having received news from Nikolai that her brother was with the Rostovs in Yaroslavl, Princess Mary, despite her aunt's dissuades, immediately prepared to go, and not only alone, but with her nephew. Whether it was difficult, easy, possible or impossible, she did not ask and did not want to know: her duty was not only to be near, perhaps, her dying brother, but also to do everything possible to bring him a son, and she got up. drive. If Prince Andrei himself did not notify her, then Princess Mary explained that either by the fact that he was too weak to write, or by the fact that he considered this long journey too difficult and dangerous for her and his son.
In a few days, Princess Mary got ready for the journey. Her crews consisted of a huge princely carriage, in which she arrived in Voronezh, chaises and wagons. M lle Bourienne, Nikolushka with her tutor, an old nanny, three girls, Tikhon, a young footman and a haiduk, whom her aunt had let go with her, rode with her.