Most Indians enjoy wearing traditional folk costumes and Everyday life, believing that through clothing they express their inner world, and it is an extension of the owner’s personality. Color and style, as well as ornaments and patterns decorating clothes can tell about the character of the owner of the suit, his social status and even the area where he comes from. Despite the increasing influence of Western culture every year, modern Indian clothing retains its originality and ethnic uniqueness.
A little history and legends
In poetic Indian legends, the creation of cloth is likened to the creation of the world. The Creator - sutradhara - weaves the universe with the thread of sutra, which is the basis of the nascent Universe.
Research has shown that Indian national clothing began to take shape during the Indus civilization, which existed in 2800-1800 BC. Until the 14th century, the dhoti, which is today men's clothing, was genderless and was worn by both men and women. This is confirmed by such ancient literary sources as the epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". What the female version of the dhoti looked like can be seen in the sculptures of goddesses created by artists of the Gandhara school of art. Somewhat later, a whole-woven sari appeared.
Rules and norms for wearing sari and dhoti, details and elements indicating the gender and regional identity of the owner began to appear in the 14th century, and today Indian clothing is clearly divided into men's and women's.
Men's wardrobe
Festive sherwanis
The modern sherwani is an elongated knee-length frock coat with a clasp up to the collar. It is sewn from satin or silk, as a rule, for some kind of celebration or wedding and decorated with sparkles, mirrors or embroidery. They wear it with tight trousers - churidars or bloomers.
Women's outfits
Remembering what kind of clothes she is, the first thing that comes to mind is the sari. However, besides this, Indian women also happily wear traditional salwar kameez, lenga choli and anarkali. What is hidden behind these strange oriental names? Let's figure it out.
"Strip of fabric"
This is how the word “sari” is translated from Sanskrit. Indeed, this is a cloth 1.2-1.5 meters wide and 4 to 9 meters long, which is wrapped around the body. In India there is a beautiful ancient legend about how the sari was first made. According to her, it was created by a weaver-magician who dreamed of a beautiful woman and imagined the sparkle of her eyes, gentle touches, smooth silk hair and her laughter. The resulting fabric was so amazing and similar to a woman that the master could not stop and wove a lot of it. But fatigue still got the better of him, but he was absolutely happy, as his dream came true in amazing clothes.
Scientists discovered the first information about the prototype of the sari in written sources dating back to 3000 BC. In modern India, it is the most common and popular Indian women's clothing, worn with a petticoat (pavada) and a blouse called a ravika or choli. There are many ways and styles of wearing a sari, and in each region of this big country he is his own, special. The most common is nivi, when one of the ends (pallu) of the sari is wrapped twice around the hips, and the second is secured to the petticoat and thrown over the shoulder. When going out, Indian women throw the free edge of their sari over their heads.
But the material from which Indian sari clothing is made, just like in previous times, depends on the material security and social status of the woman.
Sarees can be of a variety of colors, with a pattern or plain, to suit any, even the most fastidious taste. But there are a number of colors that Indian women prefer only on special occasions. So, when getting married, an Indian woman will wear a red or green sari, decorated with gold embroidery. A young mother who has just given birth to a child will choose a yellow sari and wear it for seven days. Traditionally, widows wear white clothes without any decoration or patterns.
Punjabi or salwar kameez
Another type of traditional clothing for Indian women is the salwar kameez, or, as it is also called due to its great popularity in Punjab, Punjabi. This costume originally appeared several centuries ago on the territory of modern Afghanistan, and came to India thanks to the Kabul Pathans.
It consists of two parts: a shalwar (salwar) - wide due to the many folds on top and trousers narrowed at the ankle - and a long tunic with side slits - kameez. But such tunics can be combined not only with salwars, they are also worn with trousers flared from the hip - shararas, narrow churidar trousers and Patiala-style shalwars, which have many folds on the legs and yoke. Both salwars and kameez are decorated with embroidery, sequins, mirrors or designs. All these outfits are complemented with a chunni or dupatta - a long and wide scarf. And if earlier Indian clothing in Moscow and other Russian cities was found only in theatrical productions, concert performances of dance groups and museums, today you can buy a sari or kameez in ethnic and exotic goods stores, of which there are quite a lot.
Lenga-choli, anarkali and pattu-pavadai
There are a great many types and variants of lehnga-choli, but they all consist of a skirt - lehnga and a blouse - choli, which can be either short or long, and a cape. But the anarkali most resembles a very flared sundress, but it must be worn with tapered trousers.
For little Indian fashionistas, there is a special traditional outfit - langa-davani or pattu-pavadai. It is in the shape of a cone with a gold stripe stitched at the foot level.
Features of indie style
Indian clothing style is popular all over the world; many famous designers create their collections inspired by this enchanting eastern country. There are a number of features that distinguish this style from other ethnic and national movements:
- Color saturation of clothing.
- Natural lightweight fabrics.
- The presence of draperies in both men's and women's clothing.
- Simple and loose items with a simple cut, such as salwar kameez, tunics, saris and others.
- Multi-layered and multi-tiered.
- Rich decoration of things with stones, rhinestones, beads, gold or silver embroidery. An abundance of prints and patterns.
- Asymmetry - tops, tunics and dresses held on one shoulder.
- Lots of accessories such as bracelets, necklaces and earrings, chains to decorate the ankle and belly.
- Comfortable shoes, decorated with natural or floral applications and ornaments.
The main thing when creating an outfit in the Indian style is to remember that in all the elements that make it up, the national characteristics peculiar to India should be traced.
- a state in southern Asia, which stretches from the peaks of the Karakoram in the north to Cape Kumari in the south, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to Bengal in the east. In the south, east and west, the country is washed by the Arabian, Laccadive and Bengal seas and the Bay of Bengal of the Indian Ocean. India borders on Pakistan in the west and northwest, in the north the Himalayas separate the state from China and Bhutan, in the northeast from Nepal and in the east from Bangladesh.
The name of the country comes from the name of the Indus River, in Hindi and Urdu "Sindh" means "river".
General information about India
Official name: Republic of India
Capital: Delhi
The area of the land: 3.3 million sq. km
Total Population: 1.2 billion people
Administrative division: A federal republic consisting of 25 states and 7 union territories under central jurisdiction.
Form of government: A republic with a federal government structure.
Head of State: President, elected for a term of 5 years.
Population composition: 72% are Indo-Aryans, 25% are Dravidians, 3% are Mongoloids.
Official language: English and Hindi and 17 regional languages across different states. Among other languages, the most common ones are Bengali, Telugu, Tamil and some others.
Religion: 83% of the country's residents profess Hinduism, the rest - Islam, Christianity, and Sikhism.
Internet domain: .in
Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz
Country dialing code: +91
Country barcode: 890
Climate
In India, which occupies a large area and is characterized by significant vertical differentiation of relief and varying distances from the ocean, contrasts in the distribution of heat and moisture are pronounced. In general, the climate of the country is greatly influenced by monsoons. The altitude factor predetermined the cold climate of the high mountains in northern India, while a temperate climate prevails on the low slopes of these mountains and on the plateau.
North Indian resorts are located in altitude zone from 1500 to 2300 m. For example, in Darjeeling and Srinagar, climatic conditions are comfortable throughout the year. Average monthly temperatures in Darjeeling range from 4°C in winter to 17°C in mid-summer, when moderately warm weather prevails.
In many areas of Hindustan, the average air temperature of the coldest month - January - is 18–24 ° C, and summer months– 24–29° C. However, the daytime temperature often rises to 32° C. In the northern plains, from West Bengal to the border with Pakistan, summers are very hot, and average temperatures in Bengal reach 29° C; they gradually increase as they move to the northwest and in May in Delhi reach 33° C. The average summer temperature in Amritsar (Punjab) is 34° C, in the Thar Desert (Rajasthan) - 32°–38° C, average winter temperatures there it’s 7–16° C.
Annual rainfall ranges from less than 100 mm in the Thar Desert to 10,770 mm at Cherrapunji station in the Khasi Mountains, one of the wettest places on Earth. For Western India, the average annual precipitation is as follows: Punjab 400–500 mm, Thar Desert 50–130 mm, Saurashtra (Kathiyawar Peninsula) 650–1000 mm, western coast of Hindustan more than 2000 mm and eastern coast at the foot of the Eastern Ghats 1300–2050 mm. Central India receives an average of 650–1300 mm of rainfall per year. In the northeast of peninsular India and in the lowland north of the country, 1300–2050 mm falls, and in the eastern Himalayas and most parts of Bengal and Assam - more than 2000 mm.
Geography
India is located in southern Asia on the Hindustan Peninsula between the headwaters of the Indus river system in Punjab in the west and the Ganges river system in the East. In the north, the country borders with China, Bhutan and Nepal, in the northwest - with Pakistan, in the east - with Myanmar and the People's Republic of Bangladesh. In the east, India is washed by the Bay of Bengal, in the west by the Arabian Sea, and in the south by the Indian Ocean.
The length of India from north to south is about 3220 km, and from east to west it is 2930 km. India's land border is 15,200 km and its sea border is 6,083 km. Its area is 3287.3 thousand sq. km.
The natural conditions of India are very diverse. In general, 3 districts can be distinguished on its territory.
1) The Himalayas, located in northern India. Translated, the name Himalayas means “abode of snow.” The highest peak in the world is located here - Mount Chomolungma (Everest), which rises 8848 m above sea level. But its neighbors are not inferior to its older sister; a height of 5 - 6 thousand m is quite common in these areas. The Himalayas stretch from east to west (from the Brahmaputra River to the Indus River) for 2500 km with a width of 150 to 400 km. The Himalayas consist of three main mountain ranges: the Siwalik Mountains in the south (altitudes 800-1200 m), then the Lesser Himalayas (2500-3000 m) and the Greater Himalayas (5500-6000 m).
2) The Deccan Plateau on the Hindustan Peninsula with the adjacent coastal lowlands. The average height is 300 - 900 m. The Deccan is an arid hilly plateau, bounded on the west and east by the Western (higher) and Eastern Ghats mountains. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers flow through the Deccan plateau in the direction from West to East, which become very shallow in winter. It is interesting that, according to modern ideas, the Deccan Plateau was formed tens of millions of years ago as a result of “swelling” earth's surface from an asteroid impact from the opposite side globe in the Gulf of Mexico (it was this catastrophe that probably caused the extinction of dinosaurs).
3) Indo-Gangetic plain, which occupies the central and eastern part India, its area is 319 thousand sq. km. Up to 250 million people live on the territory of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This vast area extends parallel to the Himalayan ranges.
The main rivers in India are the Ganges (2510 km), Brahmaputra (2900 km), Indus (2879 km). They have a lot of water and are used for navigation. A characteristic phenomenon for the northern territories of the country are floods during the melting of glaciers.
Flora and fauna
Vegetable world
The territory of India extends almost 30° from north to south and covers an altitudinal range of approx. 9100 m, in addition, within its boundaries, the average annual precipitation in different areas ranges from less than 100 to more than 10,000 mm. It is therefore not surprising that the country's vegetation is very diverse.
The flora of India has more than 20 thousand species, many endemics. Forests of India are classified into two groups − rainforests within Hindustan and temperate forests covering the slopes of the Himalayas at altitudes of more than 1500 m above sea level.
Animal world
The modern wild fauna of India includes about 350 species of mammals, more than 1,200 species and subspecies of birds and over 20 thousand species of insects. In recent decades, the numbers of many animal species, especially large ones, have declined greatly. Of the large predators, the Asiatic lion is preserved only in the Gir Forest National Park on the Kathiyawar Peninsula (Gujarat); tigers and leopards are found in the jungles of the Terai, in the Assam-Burma border zone and in the north of Hindustan. Hyenas, cheetahs and jackals are numerous in the northern part of the country.
Wild herbivores include the Indian one-horned rhinoceros, the largest Asian rhinoceros, which is found in several national parks and reserves of Assam and West Bengal, and even in these remote areas its numbers continue to decline. In India, in particular in the state of Assam, there are several species of deer: sambar (with horns up to 100 cm long), axis, or chital, swamp deer, barasinga (its antlers have more than 14 branches), muntjac.
The fauna of the Himalayas is the most diverse. Musk deer live at the upper border of mountain forests. The Dachigam National Park (Jammu and Kashmir) is home to the Himalayan black bear, hangul (Kashmiri red deer), and leopard. The Malayan bear is found in the mountains in the northeast of the country (the states of Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland). In the highlands of the Himalayas, yaks and kulans are most adapted to harsh conditions; snow leopards are occasionally found.
The smallest of the mountain sheep - Shapu, lives above the forest line on the steep, grassy slopes of Ladakh, the largest of the mountain sheep - Nayan, found from northern Ladakh in the west to northern Sikkim in the east, and rare ones - Marco Polo sheep and kuku -yaman, or blue goat. The Alpine or mountain goat is common in the western Himalayas - in Kashmir and Ladakh. The mountains are also inhabited by markhor (or markhor), tahr, chiru (or orongo), dzeren, takin, and goral.
Among the smaller mammals, monkeys stand out.
The only representative in India is found in the forests of Assam great apes- Hoolock gibbon, or white-browed gibbon. The most widespread monkey is the langur, or tonkotel. Monkeys and most other small animals, especially rodents, cause significant damage agriculture. The exception is mongooses, which control the number of snake populations, which are very numerous in India.
The savannas of the Deccan Plateau are home to gazelles, four-horned antelopes, hares, small rodents, Bengal cats, common foxes, mongooses, hyenas, wolves, jackals, and leopards. The tropical rainforests of the Deccan are characterized by deer (sambars, axises, muntjacs), gaur bulls, loris prosimians (south of the Godwari River), tigers, red wolves, and in the most humid habitats - swamp deer, wild buffaloes and elephants. In the narrow, forested gorges of the spurs of the Western Ghats, elephants, gaurs and endemics such as the Nilgiri langur monkey, silene macaque, brown mongoose, and Malabar civet are found. In the jungles of the Deccan there are tigers and sloth bears, hyenas, and jackals. Among the small animals of the Deccan, notable are the squirrels - the striped or palm tree and the giant Malabar, and among the rodents - the dormouse and the musk shrew.
The avifauna is very rich, many species of birds are famous for their colorful plumage (Rose-winged Cramer's Parrots, Red-headed Weavers, Black Drongos, Kingfishers, Fruit Pigeons, Black-and-Red Larva-eaters, Rose-cheeked Bulbuls, Golden-fronted Leaflets). The species diversity and numbers of crane-like birds (rare black-necked crane, Indian crane Antigonus, Egyptian heron, etc.), stork-like birds (Indian marabou, etc.), parrots, honeycreepers, ravens, waterfowl (pelicans, teal, ducks) are striking.
Bank roosters are the ancestors of domestic chickens, and wild peacocks, often found in Central India, - mainly descendants of birds bred in the gardens of the Mughal rulers. The Indian starling, or mynah, has spread to many tropical regions. There are vultures, kites and crows. In winter, the number of birds almost doubles - birds fly from Europe and Northern Asia for the winter.
India has a diverse fauna of reptiles. There are cobras, including the largest in India poisonous snake– king cobra, pythons and many other snakes (ribbon krait, or bungar, coral snakes, Russell’s viper, rattlesnake, or pit viper, shield-tailed snakes, blind snakes, egg snakes, about 25 species of snakes), geckos, chameleons, in estuaries Bay of Bengal - crocodiles. The waters of the Ganges and Brahmaputra are home to the freshwater, or Gangetic, susuk dolphin, ranging from 1.8 m to 2.5 m long, and the Gangetic gharial crocodile, up to 6.6 m long.
Among insects, centipedes and scorpions are numerous, but the main damage is caused by small insects, primarily termites.
Attractions
A country with one of the oldest civilizations in the world, rich natural conditions and a warm climate, India simply cannot help but attract the attention of millions of tourists. The majestic Himalayas and mysterious Tibet, the sacred Ganges River and the tropical forests of the Western Ghats, dozens of seaside resorts and the “golden triangle”, numerous monuments of past centuries and a huge number of museums, all this constitutes the national pride of this country.
On weekdays, banks are open from 10.00 to 14.00, on Saturdays - from 10.00 to 12.00. There are branches that are open in the evenings or on Sundays. All banks are closed during public holidays, as well as on June 30 and December 31.
IN major cities You can use a credit card. The most common are Master Card, Visa International and American Express.
Useful information for tourists
India attracts tourists with its exoticism and cheapness. Animals walk peacefully on the streets, in gardens, parks and on the roads of any city in the country, ignoring motorists.
The abundance of shops, stalls and benches makes a stunning impression on tourists. You can buy almost everything here. In India it is common to bargain, but not in the same way as in Arab countries. Here they seek a discount on goods according to the so-called Dutch scheme: the price named by the merchant gradually decreases as they pronounce magic word"expensive". In the bargaining process, intonation and gestures play a big role. If a Hindu agrees, he shakes his head from side to side, if not, he nods from top to bottom. Paper money - rupees - can be dirty and worn. If the bill has holes, it will be accepted for payment, but if the corners are torn off or the edges are torn, it must be replaced.
Any establishment where you can eat is called a restaurant. After the meal, the waiter brings the bill and places it face down. It is accepted to pay large bill, exceeding the cost of lunch. It is customary to tip 10% of the total bill. Food in India is incredibly cheap. Hinduism prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages, so the restaurant does not serve them, but some establishments allow you to bring your own. On Fridays in India, prohibition is observed, and alcohol cannot be obtained at any price.
Handshakes are not accepted in India. Instead, Hindus use a traditional gesture: they raise their joined palms to their chin, as if for prayer, and shake their heads with the words: “Namaste.” In this way, local residents greet not only each other, but also their guests.
History of state and law Ancient India in legal science is considered in several periods:
1) Ancient period
(IV – first half of the 2nd millennium BC)
2) Vedic period
(second half of the 2nd century BC – mid-1st century BC)
3) Mauryan period
(second half of the 1st century BC – 1st century AD)
Socio-political system. The reasons for the emergence and development of the state and law of Ancient India have characteristic features that are similar to all states of the Ancient East:
● irrigation production
● farming
● economic needs of society
The structure of ancient Indian society consisted of 4 varnas and was arranged in a hierarchy:
1) brahmins (god-born sons)
2) kshatriyas (warriors)
3) vaishyas (traders, artisans, farmers)
4) Shudras (farmers)
Brahmins had superiority over all lower varnas and were recognized as messengers of God, teaching religion and science.
Kshatriyas were obliged to provide security in the state.
Vaishyas, like the two higher varnas, belonged to the privileged class of ancient Indian society. Their responsibilities included usury, trade, agriculture, study of rituals and rites, and distribution of alms.
Shudras belonged to the lower varna. The primary duty of a sudra was to serve the three varnas (brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas).
Based on the religious ideas of ancient Indian society, varnas originated from the body of the cosmic Giant Purusha:
→ Head – Brahmans
→ Hands – Kshatriyas
→ Hips – Vaishyas
→ Feet – Shudras
Slaves in Ancient India, as in all states of the Ancient East, were not recognized as subjects of law. Prisoners of war, debtors and children born to slaves fell into slavery.
Political system. In terms of the form of government, Ancient India was a unitary state, and in terms of the form of government it was a monarchy. The hierarchy of power was located in the following order:
1) Tsar (power is unlimited, but is subject to responsibility for improper performance of his duties)
2) central authorities
3) prince - head of the province
4) rajuk - head of the region
5) mukhya - head of the city
6) headman - head of the village
The legal status of the monarch in Ancient India differed sharply from the status of the ruler of Ancient Egypt and Ancient Babylon. The tsar was not deified, bore civil and criminal responsibility to the people and the state, and did not have the right to inflict punishment on privileged social groups.
Right. The main sources of law in Ancient India are the Laws of Manu, compiled by the Brahmins in the 2nd century. BC. – II century AD
The laws of Manu were of a pronounced ideological nature and established unequal conditions for various strata of society.
The legal monument consisted of 12 chapters and 2685 articles and regulated religious, moral and legal relations.
The extensive list of items and types of property in the collection of rules of conduct indicates the development of civil law relations, and the methods of acquiring property are also clearly defined:
→ inheritance
→ conquest
→ purchase
→ receiving as a gift
→ usury
→ for performing a certain amount of work
→ alms
The Laws of Manu stipulate the need for compensation for damage in the event of damage to someone else's property.
Despite the fact that the source of law did not regulate the age of legal capacity, transactions concluded by slaves, children, old people or mentally ill people were declared invalid.
Marriage and family relations were based on the principles of patriarchy and unequal status of family members (gender, age and origin).
Marriage between a higher and lower varna was prohibited.
When considering criminal cases, the king was ordered to take into account the objective and subjective aspects of the offense committed when choosing a punishment.
studfiles.net
2. Political structure of Ancient India
It is characterized by a caste structure of society, which largely persists in our time. Since the basis of the world is Brahman, and the world represents the universal man - Purusha, it turns out that the actual creator of the world is a wise man. The creation of the world is identical to the process of asking questions, the answers to which structure society. From the mouth of Purusha, the varna (social layer, stratum) of brahmanas/sages is created; from the hands of varna kshatriyas - warriors; from the thigh - Vaishya - varna of farmers, artisans, traders; from the legs - varna sudras - slaves. The latter cannot take part in deciding the affairs of the country or state, since they do not have their own thoughts - they are called upon to carry out the decisions of other varnas.
A transition from one varna to another is possible, but for this a person must make significant efforts in acquiring cognitive thinking skills. That is, one must have a strong desire to know the truth, which is revealed through the efforts of thinking, framed according to the eightfold noble path of the Buddha, which opens the path to the happiness of nirvana as a state of non-existence of suffering. The path involves right understanding, right motive, right speech, right conduct, right living, right aspiration, right thinking, right contemplation.
Since this path is difficult, a caste society and a state that preserves it have established themselves. The prospects for equality are related to the extent to which a person is able to develop the main qualities in himself - thinking, faith, perseverance, action, happiness. This is very important for the modern student: “Fear ignorance, but even more fear false truths; Don't trust your feelings. Because they will lead you into self-deception... A mind that makes mistakes is even worse for a person. than a malicious and hated enemy, foe.”
2. Political teachings of Antiquity
a) Plato’s teaching (428-348 BC) about the state
He proceeded from the fact that man is a social “animal”. Therefore, he is obliged to overcome the impulses of his biological nature. Without a polis - a community - a person feels incomplete. Hence the desire to create associations in which this incompleteness would not be felt. But objectively, in each polis, two opposing and warring policies are created - one for the poor, the other for the rich. In each of them there is also a division based on different properties.
Polis differ from each other based on their forms of government. These are: a) timocracy or timarchy - the power of a small number of the best, strong in mind and reasonable will; b) oligarchy as the power of several former timocrats who became rich, but at the same time lost interest in a reasonable form of government of the polis; c) democracy - the power of the people as the power of the majority over the minority, the power of the poor over the rich; d) tyranny - the power of one over all, based on cruel coercion to a certain way of life.
These forms of government cyclically replace one another for the reason that gradually the rational-volitional action of timocracy is transformed into a capricious will, subordinated to the attractiveness of property and financial wealth, which outweighs the attractiveness of moral motives and the government becomes oligarchic. Gradually, observing the behavior of the authorities, the people become the same. The more in the eyes of the people profit becomes the purpose of existence, the faster the oligarchy turns into democracy. The main thing in democracy is not that the majority rules, but that immoral motives of behavior rule: “insolence begins to be considered education, willfulness - freedom, licentiousness - pomp and luxury, shamelessness - courage.” Therefore, it is logical that democracy gives rise to a tyrant and a tyrannical form of government, “after all, excessive freedom should naturally lead both the individual and the polis to nothing other than slavery.”
In contrast to this, Plato developed the concept ideal state, possible from the standpoint of a mind free from willfulness and self-will. “The wise have a policy if he is kind and virtuous. But good morals/piety/virtue, obviously, is some kind of knowledge, because after all, it is not ignorance, but knowledge that gives good advice.” This determines social structure an ideal state in which the leading role belongs to the sages as the bearers of the philosophical level of knowledge and the corresponding way of life, and not to psychophysiological emotions and instincts. “The union of reason and correct (objective) teaching can be found among a few, the best in nature and the best in education.” Correct thoughts, but received without appropriate upbringing and education - “brutal and slavish thoughts.”
The best way of social structuring of the polis is one in which the position of a person in it is determined by wise men in accordance with the talent inherent in each person. “Doing your own thing and not clinging to much else - this is exactly what justice is.” That is, the structure of an ideal state is as follows: sages, warriors, artisans. If a person independently follows the path of self-knowledge, then he will choose the place that corresponds to his abilities and which the sages would have determined. This means that a person himself is able to form a correct idea of himself on the path of self-knowledge and become a conscious political being. If he does not follow this path, the sages show it to him.
b) The doctrine of politics of Aristotle (384-322 BC)
For the first time, he clearly defined man as a political being, capable, through speech, of coming to an understanding of the differences between good and evil, justice and injustice, and on this basis creating a state as an institution for coordinating and managing the entire diversity of needs and interests that govern people’s lives. The basis is the assertion of law as a measure of justice. Therefore, he believed that the state as a whole is a necessary primary socio-political formation, ahead of the individual and the family. The state is formed as a union of several, but not infinitely large, settlements, otherwise it will be difficult to govern. He who invented the institution of the state rendered the greatest service to humanity.
The state really exists as long as its political structure remains identical to its essence, with which citizens identify their individual consciousness and their own way of life. “Those who intend to embrace the highest positions must possess three qualities: firstly, to sympathize with the existing state structure; then, have the proper ability to perform the duties associated with the position; thirdly, to be distinguished by virtue and justice corresponding to each type of government system.” People must be similar to each other in understanding the essence of the state, otherwise it will not be strong, strong, and will not create for them the standard of living that they would perceive as the highest good. After all, it is created precisely for this purpose.
A state is people who inhabit a certain territory and are political, not biological beings. That is, they are citizens. They are those “who take part in court and public assemblies,” that is, in management, with the goal of the general public benefit, which comes not from the position, but from the ability to manage. Only those inclined and capable of a philosophical level of thinking, and not any artisan or anyone else, have the right to govern, since he has an essential dimension of objective reason, identical to the political consciousness of a person in the status of a citizen.
Forms of government were divided into correct and incorrect. The first included the monarchy as royal power, the power of the mind; aristocracy - the power of the few with the best intelligence and management abilities; polity is the power of the majority over the minority in the case when the majority has the concept of honor and courage characteristic of warriors as defenders of the state. Since the majority very rarely possesses such qualities, the correct forms of government are governed by a virtuous minority. The second includes deviations from the correct forms: from monarchy - tyranny, from aristocracy - oligarchy, from polity - democracy. Tyranny pursues the interests of one ruler; oligarchy - the benefit of property citizens; democracy – benefits of poor citizens. But none of them pursues an overall social benefit.
If management is carried out in the interests of the common benefit of all people, then these are the correct forms. With the correct forms, people are citizens; with incorrect forms, they are simply the population. Types of government differ not in whether the majority or minority rules, but in the ratio of poor to rich. The first property is accidental, the second is fundamental. Therefore, the state is created for the sake of general well-being, because only in this case can there be government in the form of polity. If this is achieved, justice will be established in the country, since the overwhelming majority will be equal both at the level of property well-being and at the level of law. In this case, the population will acquire the property of citizens.
The thing that deviates most from the correct forms of government is democracy, in which almost no one pursues the common good, because there are no political virtues. Therefore, such rule can and often does lead to the disappearance of the state altogether. Or it changes radically: the monarch begins to rule again as the bearer of the rational component of the soul, in which the virtue of prudence is born, which produces reasonable ideas, laws and embodies them in public life.
Aristotle understood monarchy primarily as power, the monopoly power of reason, and not the power of an individual. “It is desirable that the law rule, and not any of the citizens. Therefore, the one who demands that the law rule, obviously demands that only the deity and reason rule, and whoever demands that man rule, introduces the bestial/animal principle into this. Because passion is something animal and anger leads rulers astray, even if they are the best people; on the contrary, the law is a mind free from uncontrolled impulses.”
That is why the more people who constitute the supreme power, the greater the likelihood of deviation from the monarchical principle of governance, presented by law, the greater the arbitrariness (“and lawlessness”) in the organization of government, especially in one political body of different types of states that constantly compete with each other, up to and including the “war of all against all.”
Let us note that Aristotle’s political teachings are largely implemented in modern civilized democratic states, the support of which is civil society.
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INDIA, General information, Government and form of government
Area - 3,166,414 km2. Population - 1095.3 million people. Capital -. New Delhi (301 thousand people)
General information
India is located in. Southern part. Asia. Official name -. Republic. India comes from the ancient Persian word Hindu, which in turn is derived from the historical name of the river. Ind. The ancient Greeks called Ali the Indo Indians (people of the Indus). Constitution. India also recognizes the second name -. Bharat, which comes from the Sanskrit name of the ancient Indian king, whose history was described in the Mahabharata. The third name is. Hindustan, used since times. Empire. Great ones. Mughal, but has no official status.
India is the seventh largest country in the world by area and one of the largest states. Asia. Its territory is 3166414 km2. India occupies a peninsula. Hindustan, forming the central part. South. Asia. In the north. India borders. Butane. China and. Nepal, in the east - with. Bangladesh and Myanmar (the modern name of Burma), in the north in the west - with. Pakistan. Its territory stretches for 3200 km from the mountain range. Himalayas in the north to the cape. Comorin in the south, where the waters meet. Arabian Sea. Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean, from west to east - at 2740 km highest point
Mountain. Nangaparbat (8126 m). India is washed in the east. Bay of Bengal, in the south -. Polk Strait and. Indian Ocean, in the west
Arabian Sea. Part. India are included. Andaman and. Nicobar Islands as well as islands. Lakshadweep,. Amindivski and. Minicoy in the south-eastern part. Arabian Sea. Length coastline- 6083 km.
Part. India includes part of the territory. Jammu and Kashmir, some parts of the border are disputed. China and. Pakistan. A significant obstacle to the development of cross-border tourism is the presence of a high mountain system. Himalayas, located on the border with. China. Nepal and Butane. B. India has tense political relations with. Pakistan. Off the coast. There is an island in India. Sri Lanka, which is divided with. India university. Polk Strait, the width of which is about 50 km.
1029991 thousand people
Location of India. India is a state in southern Asia that stretches from the Karakoram peaks in the north to Cape Kumari in the south, from Rajasthan in the west to Bengal in the east. To the south, east and west, the country is bordered by the Arabian, Laccadive and Bengal seas and the Bay of Bengal. India borders in the west and northwest with, in the north the state is separated from and, in the northeast - from and in the east - from.
Administrative divisions of India. A federal republic consisting of 25 states and 7 union territories under central jurisdiction.
Form of government of India. A republic with a federal government structure.
Head of State of India. President, elected for a term of 5 years.
Supreme legislature of India. A bicameral parliament consisting of the House of the People with a term of office of 5 years and the Council of States elected for a term of 6 years.
Highest executive body of India. Council of Ministers.
Currency of India. Indian rupee = 100 paisam.
Flora of India. There are 21,000 plant species in India. A quarter of the country's territory is occupied by forests. At the foot of the Himalayas there are swampy - terai, above - monsoon forests(teak, sandalwood), mountain (Himalayan cedar, fir, pine, spruce), and even higher - and. In the foothills of the eastern Himalayas, in the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, on the slopes of the Western Ghats, evergreen tropical forests grow, and in the coastal lowlands - mangrove forests (sundri and dhani palm). Palm trees are common everywhere - coconut, date, toddy palm, and bamboo.
Fauna of India. The fauna of India is also quite diverse and is represented by 500 species of mammals, 350 species of reptiles, and 3000 species of birds. But some of them have been preserved only in nature reserves (for example, the Asiatic lion, the Manipur broad-horned deer, the Kashmir deer, the Nilgiri tur, the kulan, and the rhinoceros). The number of wild buffalo and barasinga deer has also decreased; snow leopard, clouded leopard, pygmy wild boar, and cheetah are rarely seen. The state is home to many monkeys, mainly rhesus macaques and langurs, as well as a huge number of palm squirrels and flying foxes. There are about 200 species of snakes and 52 of them are poisonous. Here you can see the rarest animal in the world - the Indian dugong, which belongs to the order of sea cows and is the only marine herbivore.
Rivers and lakes of India. Po carries its waters the Ganges, the sacred river of the Indians, and its tributary the Jumna, and the Brahmaputra flows in the area. Other rivers are Godavari and Narmada.
Sights of India. In Delhi - Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Raj Ghat, Jantar Mantar, Lakshmi Narayan Temple, Qutab Minar, Indian Gate, Secretariat Building, Rashtrapati Bhavan, Parliament House, National Museum, National Gallery of Modern Art, J. Nehru Museum, Museum national crafts, zoo, Safdarjung's tomb, Great Mosque, Mughal Public Reception Hall, Rang Mahal Palace, Pearl Mosque, 12th century tower. Qutub Minare, a metal column that has not rusted for centuries, is one of the. In Bombay - St. John's Church, Prince of Wales Museum, St. Thomas Cathedral, Taraporeva La Aquarium, Museum of Western India, Gardens Park with a zoo, Kanheri Caves with bas-reliefs of the 2nd-9th centuries, several temples of the 7th century. On the Malabar hills there are the picturesque Hanging Gardens and Kamala Nehru Park, the Mahalaxmi Temple, the tomb and mosque of Haji Ali, the Nehru Planetarium, the Elephanta Islands, National Park Krishnagiri Upavan, Manori Beach, Monplaisir, Jogesh-vari caves and swimming pool.
Useful information for tourists
India attracts tourists with its exoticism and cheapness. Animals walk peacefully on the streets, in gardens, parks and on the roads of any city in the country, ignoring motorists.
The abundance of shops, stalls and benches makes a stunning impression on tourists. You can buy almost everything here. In India it is common to bargain, but not in the same way as in Arab countries. Here they seek a discount on goods according to the so-called Dutch scheme: the price named by the merchant gradually decreases with the utterance of the magic word “expensive”. In the bargaining process, intonation and gestures play a big role. If a Hindu agrees, he shakes his head from side to side, if not, he nods from top to bottom. Paper money - rupees - can be dirty and worn. If the bill has holes, it will be accepted for payment, but if the corners are torn off or the edges are torn, it must be replaced.
Any establishment where you can eat is called a restaurant. After the meal, the waiter brings the bill and places it face down. It is customary to pay for it with a large bill, exceeding the cost of lunch. It is customary to tip 10% of the total bill. Food in India is incredibly cheap. Hinduism prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages, so the restaurant does not serve them, but some establishments allow you to bring your own. On Fridays in India, prohibition is observed, and alcohol cannot be obtained at any price.
Handshakes are not accepted in India. Instead, Hindus use a traditional gesture: they raise their joined palms to their chin, as if for prayer, and shake their heads with the words: “You will pray.” In this way, local residents greet not only each other, but also their guests.
