In the SRY, 2 large layers of words are distinguished: active and passive use. Active stock words are all commonly used vocabulary. The passive includes words that have left the active dictionary due to their obsolescence or in the case of novelty.

Passive words:

1. Vintage or obsolete words 2nd degree, a) Not used at all, tk. outdated, but found in historical literature, b) Words that are not used separately, but nomorphemes are found as part of related words (beef - beef, usnie - caterpillar), c) Words are not used separately, but are found as part of phraseological units (The bottom is not visible).

2. Archaisms - obsolete words denoting objects, phenomena that currently exist, but are called differently (eyes eyes, spectacle- shame, belly- a life). You can always choose a synonym.

Several types, depending on the cause of the disappearance:

one). proper-lexical are denoted by words of a different root (shoulders of ramen, finger finger, forehead forehead, velmi- very);

2). lexico-phonetic words differ from the words of the active stock by some sound at the root (stora curtain, pash-port - passport, hunger - hunger);

3). lexical and derivational words differ from words of the active stock by a prefix or suffix, the non-derivative stem is the same (fisherman fishing, warrior - warrior);

4). lexico-semantic words differ from the words of the active stock in meaning, they also exist in the modern language, but with an outdated meaning; in other meanings - the word of active use (the language of the people, the train is a wagon).

Archaisms are used in fiction for 3 purposes: 1) to recreate the real historical situation and the speech of the characters; 2) to create a solemn style of pathetic speech - mainly the vocabulary of the st.-sl. origin; 3) as one of the means of creating comic, irony, satire (by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

3. historicisms serve as the only expression of the corresponding concepts of disappeared phenomena, objects; there are no synonyms in SRY (boyar, coachman, falconer, steward, altyn, chain mail, feryaz).

Historicisms and archaisms by origin:

1. primordially Russian (lzya, so that, this, violence, flash, semo);

2. st.-sl. (smooth, kiss, shrine, verb, broadcast);

3. borrowed from other languages (voyage:, nature, politeness, axamit velvet, abshid - resignation).

Archaisms and historicisms differ in words:

1. stylistic use - in contemporary works of art;

2. time - in works written in the past, where they are historicisms and archaisms only for the modern reader.

4. Neologisms - words that are perceived as new lexical units that are not included in the active vocabulary. They are considered neologisms until they become part of the active vocabulary. They can appear in the language as a designation of new things, phenomena, or as a new name for something that already has a name. (airplane plane, fable - mythology). Depending on this, neologisms are divided into:

1. lexical, formed on the basis of existing words; borrowed from other languages (tractor, correspondence student, capron);

2. semantic - using existing words in a new sense (the background is the lining of a peasant shirt, the hype is gold leaf, a pompadour, a nursery, a companion).

Kinds neologisms:

1. nominative - simple names for something (virgin lands, state farm);

2. nominative-stylistic serve certain stylistic purposes (blurt call, window dressing).

Contextual formations (occasionalisms) created for certain stylistic purposes according to the rules of Russian word formation should be distinguished from linguistic neologisms. (“goicha-rovan” - Pushkin, “loud-boiling” - Tyutchev, “vod” - Yesenin, “raskanareyit” - Mayakovsky).

The origin of non-vowel and full-vowel combinations of vowels.

Speaking about the history of this or that phenomenon, one cannot avoid the Proto-Slavic language (it stood out from the Indo-European in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, and in the middle of the 1st millennium AD it fell apart, from that time we can talk about the independence of the Praslav .lang). In Proto-Slav. there were combinations of vowels and smooth ones inherited from the common Indo-European language (diphthongs - a double sound). They contradicted the law of an open syllable, so they should change. Didn't contradict the open law. syllable, only when they were before vowels (* or ati). In the position before acc. they formed a diphthong and would change. In different languages, they changed in different ways, which depended on the length of the vowel and smooth: borda - b about rda - barda - brada and bo R yes, beard. Ra, la, le - disagreement (feature of Yugoslav language), olo, oro - full agreement (special r. language).

Ticket number 9. Functional and style characteristics of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Expressive vocabulary of the Russian language. Socio-functional characterization of the vocabulary of the Russian language.

Language is a combination of several styles, different in linguistic means and techniques, which are taken to express a certain content. Each style has its own expressive features, which determine the stylistic use of the word. It is divided into 3 groups.

Interstyle vocabulary

Applies to all styles of the language; words are not emotionally colored, neutral Names of vital phenomena of reality, the name of objects, qualities without any evaluation of them, the basis of the dictionary. Otherwise - neutral vocabulary.

Lexicon of colloquial styles.

Used in informal communication, the speech act is spontaneous.

· Expanded vocabulary.

A) literary and colloquial l. include words, cat. have a certain shade of reducedness (correspondence student, concrete, brilliant green). These words are used not only in speeches, but also in newspapers and publics.

B) colloquial-everyday l. - words, cat. isp-Xia in everyday, everyday communication. A more reduced coloring of these words has an expressive coloring. (joker, merry fellow, pieces of iron)

· Space. This is one of the forms of the national language, cat. makes speech. The words are even more reduced, more express words. (dad, bro, piper, juice)

Vulgarisms are roughly colloquial words, a cat. upotr-Xia in the oral form of communication and is very limited in terms of distribution. Vulgarisms belong to the non-literary layer of colloquial vocabulary, carry a sharp expression of rudeness (mug, popperya, bulldozer, bastard, eat etc.).

Book vocabulary

Stylistically limited and fixed in their use words that are found mainly in written speech. Some of the book's words are used in different book styles, not assigned to any of them. (bravado, individual). Others are used predominantly in any one style:

Scientific vocabulary - scientific and technical terms (abcess, hologram, insulin)

· Official and business l. - used in the office. style of speech (plaintiff, ownerless)

· Poetic l. - this is a special category of books, used in lyrics and artistic prose. The form of this category was carried out at the end of the 18th century. This included staroslav-we, bookish words with the meaning of solemnity, from folk poetry. (cheeks, lips, bliss)

Expressive vocabulary of the Russian language. - these are words, cat. in the line of the lexical meaning, in addition to the denotative content, they have a connotative content.

Connotation - emotional and evaluative coloring of language units:

Neutral lexical units - they do not have connotative content (table, hand, father)

Express vocabulary - words, cat. have connotative content. 2 types:

Expression can be created by special word forms (suf., adj., repetition of monosyllabic words) (nose, dominoes)

Expression is inherent in the semantics of certain words (nag, morgaly, mug)

Types of emotional evaluation:

Positive est. (affectionate - golden, approving - well done)

Negative est. (pejorative - golden, disapproving - stupid, contemptuous - youngster, neglecting - fool)

Joking (button) and ironic (nonsense)

16. The concept of the passive and active composition of the dictionary

The dictionary of the Russian language in the process of its historical development is constantly changing and improving. Changes in the vocabulary are directly related to the production activity of a person, with the economic, social, political development of society. The vocabulary reflects all the processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects, phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that call them go out of use or change their meaning. Considering all this, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: active vocabulary and passive vocabulary.

The active vocabulary includes those everyday words, the meaning of which is clear to all people who speak this language. The words of this group are devoid of any signs of obsolescence.

The passive vocabulary includes those that either have a pronounced coloring of obsolescence, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet received wide popularity and are also not in everyday use.

The words of the passive stock are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).

Introduction

The topic of this work is one of the categories of obsolete words - archaisms. This topic is of practical importance from the point of view of the norms of the Russian literary language, since when recreating the color of a particular historical era, one has to use obsolete words. It is the analysis of such use that is the purpose of this work. The objectives of the work are: to identify the differences between archaisms and another group of obsolete words - historicisms (including when they are used in fiction); classification of archaisms; determination of the role of archaisms in the Russian literary language.

The structure of the work includes three parts. The first of them introduces the concept of the active and passive vocabulary of the language, of two varieties of words in the passive dictionary (obsolete and neologisms), of historicisms and archaisms as two groups of obsolete words (cases of archaisms are noted even outside the passive vocabulary). The second section contains a classification of archaisms on the basis of the process of their transition into a passive dictionary. In addition, there is a special mention here of "artificial archaisms." The third section deals with the use of obsolete words in fiction, and emphasizes the special role of archaisms, the use of which is not limited to creating a historical background. It also touches upon the question of the appropriateness of the use of obsolete words.

For writing the work used as the main sources "Vocabulary of the modern Russian language" (author - M. I. Fomina) and "Practical stylistics of the Russian language" (author - D. E. Rozental). Some examples of the use of archaisms are given according to the "Manual for classes in the Russian language" (V. F. Grekov and others). Information on the history of the development of the Russian language is given from two sources: "Modern Russian language: morphology" (edited by V. V. Vinogradov) and "Russian language and culture of speech" (edited by V. D. Chernyak).

The concept of the active and passive composition of the dictionary. obsolete words; difference between archaisms and historicisms

Vocabulary is the most mobile language level. Changing and improving vocabulary is directly related to the production activity of a person, to the economic, social, political life of the people. The vocabulary reflects all the processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects, phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that call them go out of use or change their sound appearance and meaning. Considering all this, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: an active dictionary and a passive dictionary.

The active vocabulary includes those everyday words whose meaning is clear to people who speak this language. The words of this group are devoid of any shades of obsolescence.

The passive vocabulary includes those that are either outdated, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet received wide popularity and are also not used everyday. Thus, the words of the passive stock are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).

Those words that have gone out of active use are among the obsolete. For example, words that have ceased to be used due to the disappearance of the concepts they denoted are clearly obsolete: boyar, clerk, veche, archer, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city duma), burmistr, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms, they are more or less known and understood by native speakers, but not actively used by them. In the modern language, they are used only when obsolete objects and phenomena need to be named, for example, in special scientific and historical literature, as well as in the language of works of art in order to recreate a particular historical era.

If the concept of an object, phenomenon, action, quality, etc. is preserved, and the names assigned to it are replaced in the process of language development with new ones that are more acceptable for one reason or another for a new generation of native speakers, then the old names also pass into category of passive vocabulary, into the group of so-called archaisms (Greek archaios - ancient). For example: ponezhe - because; eyelids - eyelids, guest - merchant, merchant (predominantly foreign), guest - trade, etc.

Some of the words of this type are practically already beyond the limits of even the passively existing lexical stocks of the modern Russian literary language. For example: thief - thief (by the way, at that time the words thief, theft were used to denote political crimes); stry - paternal uncle; stryina - paternal uncle's wife; uy - maternal uncle; stirrup - down; sling - 1.roof; 2. vault of heaven; vezha - 1. tent, wagon; 2.tower; tuk - fat, lard and many others. Some of the archaisms are preserved in the modern language as part of phraseological units: to get into trouble, where the slip is a spinning rope machine; you can’t see where the zga (stga) is the road, the path; to beat with a brow, where the brow is the forehead; rage with fat, where fat is wealth; cherish like the apple of an eye, where the apple is the pupil, etc.

The process of transition of words from the group of active use to the passive group is long. It is caused both by extralinguistic reasons, for example, by social changes, and by linguistic ones proper, of which the systemic connections of obsolete words play a very significant role: the larger, more diverse and stronger they are, the more slowly the word passes into the passive layers of the dictionary. Note that the reverse phenomenon is also possible - the return of a word from a passive dictionary to an active one. As a rule, this happens when there are rather extralinguistic reasons, primarily political ones. Such words returned to the active dictionary include, for example: governor (this is a well-established, but incorrect designation of the head of the administration of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, although there are no provinces in Russia), a duma (the State Duma, a regional or regional duma), a world (judge), department (this concept for the designation of departments, institutions was used in tsarist Russia).

Obsolete include not only those words that have long been out of use, but also those that have arisen and become obsolete relatively recently, for example: educational program (elimination of illiteracy), food requisition, tax in kind, combed, etc. Obsolete words can also be original words (for example , helmet, good, oboloko, etc.) and borrowed, for example, Old Slavonicisms (vezhdy - eyelids, alkati - fast, starve, riza - clothes, hand - palm, etc.) or foreign words (the usual word in Russia before the revolution philanthropist is now almost forgotten, and the word sponsor is used in the same meaning).

The dictionary of the Russian language in the process of its historical development is constantly changing and improving. Changes in the vocabulary are directly related to the production activity of a person, with the economic, social, political development of society. The vocabulary reflects all the processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects, phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that call them go out of use or change their meaning. Considering all this, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: active vocabulary and passive vocabulary.

The active vocabulary includes those everyday words, the meaning of which is clear to all people who speak this language. The words of this group are devoid of any signs of obsolescence.

The passive vocabulary includes those that either have a pronounced coloring of obsolescence, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet received wide popularity and are also not in everyday use.

The words of the passive stock are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).

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From the publisher
This textbook is intended primarily for students of philological specialties of higher educational institutions. But it is also designed for use in the educational process in a wide range of humanities.

The concept of vocabulary and lexical system
Vocabulary is the whole set of words of the language, its vocabulary. The section of linguistics that studies vocabulary is called lexicology (gr. lexikos - dictionary + logos - teaching). Differ vocabulary

The lexical meaning of the word. Its main types
The word differs in its sound design, morphological structure and the meaning and meaning contained in it. The lexical meaning of a word is its content, i.e. historically anchored in

The word as a lexical and grammatical unit of the language
The word as the basic unit of language is studied in various sections of linguistics. So, from the phonetic point of view, the sound shell is considered, those vowels and consonants are distinguished, which

Polysemy of a word
Polysemy, or polysemy (gr. poly - many + sma - sign), is the property of words

Lexical homonyms, their types and role in the language
Homonyms (gr. homos - the same + onima - name) are words that are different in meaning, but

Lexical synonyms, their types and role in the language
Synonymy is one of the brightest manifestations of systemic relations in vocabulary. Words that are similar in their emerging associations and the proximity of the designated concepts enter into synonymous relations. This sign is not

Lexical antonyms, their types and role in the language
The presence in the language of stable systemic relations is evidenced by the correlative opposition of words according to the general, most essential semantic feature for their meaning. Such words against

The original vocabulary of the Russian language
On a chronological basis, the following groups of native Russian words are distinguished, united by their origin, or genesis (gr. genesis - origin): Indo-European, Common Slavic, Eastern

Borrowed words in Russian
Since ancient times, the Russian people entered into cultural, trade, military, political relations with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. In the process of using

Borrowings from related Slavic languages
Of related language borrowings, a significant group of words of Old Slavonic origin stands out in particular. However, a significant role in the enrichment of the Russian language was also played by the words that came

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages
Along with the words of the Slavic languages, non-Slavic borrowings, for example, Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European, entered the Russian vocabulary at different stages of its development.

Mastering loanwords
Penetrating into the Russian language (as a rule, together with a borrowed subject, phenomenon or concept), many foreign-language

Russian words in the languages ​​of the world
Russian words have been included in different languages ​​of the world since ancient times. Most of them entered the languages ​​of the peoples inhabiting our country. Russian words were actively mastered by the neighboring peoples of Northern Europe

Dialect vocabulary
In the Russian lexical system, groups of words are distinguished, the scope of which is limited by one or another territorial fixation. Such groups are called dialects. At its core, it is

Vocabulary professional and terminological
In the Russian language, along with common vocabulary, there are words and expressions used by groups of people united by the nature of their activity, i.e. by profession. These are professionalisms.

Vocabulary of socially restricted use
Special words differ from dialectal and professional vocabulary, with which certain social groups of people, according to the conditions of their social status, the specifics of the environment, designate

Vocabulary interstyle and functionally fixed, stylistically neutral and expressively colored
The performance of one of the main functions of the language - communication, message or influence - involves the choice of various means from the lexical system. This is due to the functional and stylistic stratification of Russian

obsolete words
One group of obsolete words consists of those that have already completely fallen out of use due to the disappearance of those concepts that denoted: boyar, veche, archer, guardsman, vowel (member of the city

Neologisms
New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from rp. neos - new + logos - word). Arising along with a new object, thing

The concept of phraseology and phraseological turnover
In Russian (as in a number of other languages) words are combined with each other, forming phrases. Some of them are free, others are not. Compare, for example, the use of the phrase up d

The concept of phraseological meaning. Single-valued and multi-valued turns. Synonymy and antonymy of phraseological units
Phraseological turnover, as mentioned earlier, primarily distinguishes from a free phrase the generalization of the meaning of the entire turnover as a whole. This is what makes it possible to single out a special type of value.

Types of phraseological units according to motivation of meaning and semantic unity
The criterion for distinguishing types of indecomposable combinations is primarily the degree of fusion of individual words in them. The stability and indecomposability of the elements of phraseological turnover is considered as a right

Phraseological unions
Phraseological fusions are such lexically indivisible phrases, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the individual words included in them. For example, the meaning of revolutions is to beat the buckets -

Phraseological units
Phraseological units are such lexically indivisible turns, the general meaning of which is to some extent motivated by the figurative meaning of the words that make up this turn. For example, common

Phraseological combinations
Phraseological combinations are called such stable turns, the general meaning of which completely depends on the meaning of the constituent words. The words in the phraseological combination retain their relative

Phraseological turns
The so-called phraseologized turns (or expressions), which do not have all the distinguishing features of phraseological units, but only h

Structural and grammatical composition of phraseological units and phraseological expressions
In terms of its structure and grammatical composition, the phraseology of the modern Russian language is

Lexical and grammatical characteristics of phraseological units and phraseological expressions
According to the grammatical composition, several most typical varieties are distinguished among phraseological units: a) turns, which are a combination of an adjective and a noun: air

Primordial phraseological units and phraseological expressions
The basis of Russian phraseology is primordial turns, i.e. common Slavic (Proto-Slavic), East Slavic (Old Russian) and actually Russian. To

Phraseologisms and phraseological phrases borrowed from other languages
Word combinations by origin can also be borrowed from other languages. First of all, there are turns borrowed from the language of the Church Book, i.e. Russified Old Slavs

Colloquial phraseological units and phraseological phrases
In the colloquial style, the largest number of phraseological units are colloquial everyday turns and phraseologized turns. They are characterized by greater figurativeness, often have several

Book phraseological units and phraseological expressions
The sphere of use of phraseological turns of book speech is much narrower than neutral, interstyle phraseological units. This includes individual turns of official business speech: put under the cloth; slave

The emergence of new words and phrases. Changing their values. Loss of obsolete words and phrases
The lexical and phraseological system is directly related to human activity in society and the development of the latter. Vocabulary and phraseology (especially the first) from all levels of the language are considered

Dictionary types
The department of linguistics dealing with the compilation of dictionaries and their study is called

The most important explanatory dictionaries
The first proper explanatory dictionary was published in 1789-1794. six-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", containing 43257 words taken by the compilers from contemporary secular and spiritual books

Dialect dictionaries (regional)
In the middle of the XIX century. academic dialect dictionaries began to be published: "Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary" (1852) and "Supplement to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary" (1858). They collected d

Historical dictionaries
The main historical dictionary of the Russian language is "Materials for the Dictionary of the Old Russian Language" by Acad. I.I. Sreznevsky (the dictionary was published in 1893-1912 after the death of the author, reprinted in 1

Etymological dictionaries
The first Russian etymological dictionary was “The Korneslov of the Russian language, compared with all the main Slavic dialects and with twenty-four foreign languages” F.S. Shimkevich (1842). In with

Derivational dictionaries
The task of dictionaries of this type is to reveal the word-formation structure of words available in the language, to show the division of words into morphemes. Two editions (1961,1964) came out "School word-formation with

Reverse Dictionaries
When studying Russian word-formation (for example, when quantitatively characterizing word-forming elements, when determining the degree of productivity of certain suffixes, etc.), it is very useful

Abbreviations Dictionaries
The wide distribution in the modern Russian language of various kinds of compound words (including abbreviations), which is a kind of manifestation of the principle of "economy" in the language, has caused the need

Frequency Dictionaries
When studying the richest vocabulary of the Russian language, it is of no small interest to clarify the question of the degree of use of words in speech, since this creates an objective basis for rationalization.

Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms
The first Russian dictionaries of synonyms were “The Experience of the Russian Soslovnik” by D.I. Fonvizin (1783), which contained 32 synonymous rows (105 words in total) and P.R. Kalaidovich

Phraseological dictionaries
An attempt to collect and systematize the phraseology of the Russian language in a separate work found its expression in the publication of a number of phraseological collections. In 1890 a collection was published

Dictionaries of foreign words
The first dictionary of foreign words was the handwritten Lexicon of New Vocabularies in Alphabet, compiled at the beginning of the 18th century. Throughout the XVIII century. published various dictionaries of foreign words and

Spelling dictionaries
The first serious attempt to codify Russian spelling was the work of Ya.K. Grotto "Rus

Orthoepic dictionaries
Over the past decades, along with work to streamline spelling, a lot of work has been done to streamline pronunciation. A summary of the most important rules for literary pronunciation is attached to Tolkovo

Grammar dictionaries. Correctness Dictionaries
The most complete dictionary containing grammatical information is the “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. word change".

Writers' language dictionaries. Dictionaries of epithets
The largest dictionary of the writers' language is Pushkin's Language Dictionary in 4 volumes, containing over 21,000 words (1956-1961; addition to the dictionary - 1982). Dictionaries of one work are "Words

Phonetics
Phonetics is the science of speech sounds that are elements of the sound system of a language (Greek phon&

Phonetic means of the Russian language
The phonetic means of the Russian language with a delimiting function include sounds, stress (verbal and phrasal) and intonation, often acting together or in combination.

Phonetic units of the Russian language
From the side of rhythmic-intonation, our speech represents a speech flow, or a chain of sounds. This chain is divided into links, or phonetic units of speech: phrases, measures, phonetic words, syllables and sounds.

The concept of a syllable
From the point of view of education, from the physiological side, a syllable is a sound or several sounds pronounced with one expiratory push. From the point of view of sonority, from the side of ak

stress
In the speech flow, phrasal, clock and verbal stress is distinguished. Word stress is the emphasis during the pronunciation of one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. words

Sound laws in the field of consonants
1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding double deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homoph

Long and double consonants
In the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language, there are two long consonants - soft hissing [

Sound law in the field of vowel sounds
Vowel reduction. The change (weakening) of vowels in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish the position of unstressed vowels in p

Sound alternation
Due to the presence of strong and weak sounds in the phonetic system of the Russian literary language, there are positional alternations of sounds. Along with positional alternations, or phonetic, there are

The concept of phonetic transcription
The recording of oral speech in full accordance with its sound cannot be carried out by ordinary spelling. When spelling, there is no complete correspondence between sounds and letters

Phonetic transcription of text
Another d "ên" / in "eu" t "Λ pΛzha r" b / raz "n" yes "las pfs" ie

The concept of a phoneme
The sounds of speech, without having their own meaning, are a means for distinguishing words. The study of the distinctive ability of speech sounds is a special aspect of phonetic research and is called

Sound changes in the modern Russian literary language
The quality of the phonetic position (strong and weak positions) and the distinctive function of the phoneme associated with it (strong and weak phonemes) are determined by the nature of the positional changes inherent in phonetic

The concept of strong and weak phonemes
The degree of different function of phonemes is expressed in terms of a strong phoneme and a weak phoneme. Strong phonemes appear in the phonetic position in which the greatest number of sounds are distinguished.

The concept of the phonemic series
The change of phonemes, strong and weak, occupying the same position in the morpheme, forms a phonemic series. So, vowel phonemes, identical in place in the morpheme cos-, form a phonemic series<о> - <

The system of consonant phonemes of the modern Russian literary language
Composition of consonant phonemes. In position before vowels<а>, <о>, <у>, <и>consonant phonemes are pronounced most definitely, i.e. differentiate as much as possible.

The concept of orthoepy
Orthoepy (Greek orthos - direct, correct and epos - speech) is a set of oral speech rules that establish a uniform literary pronunciation. Orthoepic norms cover pho

Russian literary pronunciation in its historical development
The orthoepy of the modern Russian literary language is a historically established system, which, along with new features, to a large extent preserves the old, traditional features, reflecting

Pronunciation of vowels in the first prestressed syllable
The literary pronunciation of unstressed vowels is based on the phonetic law of the modern Russian literary language - the reduction of vowels. Due to reduction, unstressed vowels are reduced in length

Pronunciation of vowels in all pre-stressed syllables except the first
In the second and third prestressed syllables, the vowels undergo a more significant reduction than in the first syllable. The degree of reduction of vowels in these syllables practically does not differ. Sounds pronounced by

Pronunciation of vowels in stressed syllables
The pronunciation of vowels in post-stressed syllables is basically similar to the pronunciation of vowels in all pre-stressed syllables except the first. Reduced sounds pronounced in stressed syllables are not of high quality.

Pronunciation of vowels at the beginning of a word
1. In place of the letters a, o at the beginning of the word (if the syllable is not stressed), the sound [Λ] is pronounced. For example: agent, sedge, shell, founder - [Λgent], [Λjuice], [ΛbΛlochk], [Λs

Transition(s) to(s)
In the place of the letter and at the beginning of the word, when the pronunciation of this word merges with the previous one, which ends in a solid consonant, as well as in the place of the union and under certain conditions, the voice is pronounced

Pronunciation of unstressed vowel combinations
Combinations of unstressed vowels are formed during the continuous pronunciation of the functional word and the subsequent significant one, as well as at the junction of morphemes. Literary pronunciation does not allow the contraction of op.

Pronunciation of voiced and voiceless consonants
In the speech stream, the consonant sounds of the modern Russian literary language, paired in sonority-deafness, change in their quality depending on their position in the word. Differ

Pronunciation of hard and soft consonants
The distinction in the pronunciation of consonants, paired in hardness-softness, has a phonemic meaning, since in Russian hard and soft consonants distinguish the sound shells of words (cf. was - would

Pronunciation of consonant combinations
With regard to literary pronunciation, some combinations of consonants are distinguished, strictly defined in their composition. Such combinations are found at the morphological junctions of words (final agree

Silent consonants
When pronouncing words, some morphemes (usually roots) in certain combinations with other morphemes lose one or another sound. As a result, in the spelling of words there are letters devoid of sound

Pronunciation of consonants marked with two identical letters
In Russian words, combinations of two identical consonants are usually found between vowels at the junction of the morphological parts of the word: prefix and root, root and suffix. In foreign words, double agree

Pronunciation of individual sounds
1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced consonants and sonorants is pronounced as a voiced consonant explosive: mountain, where, hail; before deaf consonants and at the end of the word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λzh"

Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms
1. Unstressed ending of the nominative case singular. h. masculine adjectives -th, -th are pronounced according to the spelling: [kind

Features of the pronunciation of foreign words
Many words of foreign origin have been firmly mastered by the Russian literary language, have entered the national language and are pronounced in accordance with existing orthoepic norms. less significant

The concept of graphics
Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. A letter associated with the use of graphic signs (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. Modern writing

Russian alphabet and letter names
Aa a Bb bae Vv ve Gg ge Dd de Her e yoyo zhzh zhe zz ze

Correlation between Russian phonetics and graphics
The composition of modern Russian graphics is an alphabet invented for Slavic writing and carefully developed for the Old Church Slavonic language, which about a thousand years ago was a literary language.

Features of Russian graphics
Modern Russian graphics are distinguished by a number of features that have developed historically and represent a certain graphic system. Russian graphics do not have such an alphabet in which for

The concept of spelling
As a result of a long development, Russian writing, gradually adapting to the linguistic system, has developed into a certain system that functions in the form of graphics and spelling, which are in close proximity.

Morphological character of Russian spelling
Modern Russian spelling conveys our speech by designating its sound side with letters, and in this sense our spelling is phonetic. However, in Russian writing, the speech unit, denoted by ed

Phonetic spellings
Along with the morphological principle, which occupies a leading position in Russian spelling, the so-called phonetic spellings are used, which represent deviations from the morphological principle.

Traditional and differentiating spellings
The violations of the morphological principle of spelling also include traditional and differentiating spellings. Traditional spellings, otherwise historical, are relics of the past, tr

Brief information about the history of Russian graphics and spelling
Modern Russian graphics represent a slightly modified graphics of the Old Slavonic language, the so-called Cyrillic alphabet. Old Slavonic graphics were compiled in the 9th century. brothers in Bulgaria

Word composition
From the point of view of the morphological structure, the words of the Russian language are divided into words that have forms of inflection and those that do not have forms of inflection. The words of the first group are divided into two parts: the stem and

Productivity of word-forming and formative affixes
The affixes with the help of which new words are formed are called word-forming, and the affixes that form forms of the same word are called formative. Using affixes for

Non-derivative and derived bases
The words of the Russian language differ in the structure of the stem, or morphological composition. The bases of all significant words are divided into two groups according to their morphological composition:

Semantic and phonetic weakening of the non-derivative stem
Word-formation processes in some cases weaken the non-derivative basis in the semantic and phonetic terms and even lead to the complete disappearance of the original basis, to the replacement of its other basis.

Production base
A generating stem is not a particular kind of stem found in a language; There are only two such varieties - derivative and non-derivative. The term generating (or forming) the basis of decrees

Correlation between derivative and generating bases
The correlation of the derivative and generating stems is expressed primarily in the presence of a given derived stem and the supposed generating stem of common semantic-grammatical properties. For example

Changes in the morphological composition of the word
In modern Russian, the main organizing element of word formation is the basis (non-derivative and derivative). In the process of the historical development of the language, the way of images changed

Lexico-syntactic word formation
Lexico-syntactic word formation takes place in cases of the formation of words from phrases combined into one word in the process of use in the language, for example: crazy (crazy), t

Morphological word formation
The most productive in enriching the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is morphological word formation, i.e. creation of new words on the basis of the building material available in the language by means of

Subject of morphology
Morphology is one of the divisions of grammar. The term "grammar" is used in linguistics in a double sense: in the meaning of the grammatical structure of the language and in the meaning of the doctrine of grammatical structure.

Grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms
Morphology, being the study of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms, primarily deals with such concepts as grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form.

Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology, there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed. With the synthetic method

The interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings in a word
As vocabulary and grammar, being different sides of the language, are connected with each other, so the lexical and grammatical meanings in a word are in interaction. This is manifested, for example, in

General characteristics of the parts of speech of the modern Russian language
Depending on the lexical meaning, on the nature of morphological features and syntactic function, all words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexico-grammatical categories, called h

Transitional phenomena in the field of parts of speech
In the process of language development, words from one lexico-grammatical category can move to another. If a word belonging to a certain part of speech loses (or changes) its basic

Composition of parts of speech
In modern Russian, parts of speech are independent and official. In a special group of words, modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words are distinguished. independent

The meaning of a noun, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that serve as the name of an object in a broad sense, i.e. have the meaning of objectivity are called nouns. Nouns as part of speech can be names

Common nouns and proper nouns
Nouns can be common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are generalized names of homogeneous objects, actions, states (spruce, tree

Animate and inanimate nouns
All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animated nouns include the names of people, animals, insects, etc., i.e. Living creatures. To the inanimate

Nouns associated with specific concepts
Nouns used to refer to objects of reality or persons are called concrete (table, wall, notebook, friend, sister, etc.). Grammatically specific nouns

Nouns with concrete real meaning
Among common nouns, a group of words stands out, which are used to refer to homogeneous substances that can be divided, measured (but not counted, i.e. uncountable

Nouns associated with abstract concepts
Nouns used to denote abstract concepts of quality, action and state are called abstract, or abstract (whiteness, beauty, mowing, shooting, development, enthusiasm

Nouns Meaning Singularity
Specific common nouns used to refer to persons or objects isolated from the mass of a substance or from among homogeneous ones are called singular or singulatives (lat.

Collective nouns
Nouns used to refer to a set of homogeneous persons or objects as some kind of indivisible whole, as a collective unity, are called collective (peasantry, uch

gender of nouns
The most characteristic morphological feature of a noun is the category of gender. All nouns, with minor exceptions, belong to one of three genders: masculine,

Hesitation in the gender of nouns
In determining the gender of some nouns (comparatively few), fluctuations are sometimes observed. So, individual nouns, used, as a rule, in the form of the masculine gender, sometimes

Gender of indeclinable nouns
According to the existing rules, all indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting inanimate objects, most often belong to the middle gender: communique, taxi, metro, cinema, sconce,

Number of nouns
Most nouns denote countable things and can be combined with cardinal numbers. Such nouns have correlative forms of the singular

Nouns with only singular forms
Nouns denoting objects that are not countable and are not combined with cardinal numbers do not have plural forms. This group includes: 1) creature names

Nouns with only plural forms
The nouns that do not have a singular number mainly include the following groups: 1) the names of paired or complex (compound) objects: sleigh, droshki, scissors, pincers, gates, glasses,

Case of nouns
The noun, depending on the functions it performs in the sentence, changes in cases. Case is that grammatical category that shows the syntactic role of a noun.

Basic meanings of cases
The nominative case form is the original case form of the word. In this form, the noun is used for the name, name of a person, object, phenomenon. In this case there is always a subject

The role of prepositions in the expression of case meanings
Prepositions play a significant role in the expression of case meanings. By joining nouns in various case forms, prepositions help to reveal and clarify the meanings of cases. T

The main types of declension of nouns
Declension types of nouns differ in modern Russian only in case forms of the singular. In the plural, these differences are almost non-existent. In modern

Singular
Genitive. Along with the ending of the genitive case of the singular -а, -я, inanimate masculine nouns have the ending -у, -ю, which introduces the meaning of the case d

Plural
Nominative case 1. Masculine nouns usually end in -ы, -и (tables, rudders). However, in many words there is an ending -a, -ya (stressed): sides, eyes

Singular
1. In the genitive, dative and prepositional cases, a small group of words in -iya has a special ending -i: (about) lightning, (about) Mary, (about) the army, on the river Biya (instead of the usual -e: (about) claw) .

Plural
1. In the genitive case, most of the words of the second declension have a zero ending: walls, herbs, drops; some nouns with stems in hissing and in l, n (softened) end in -ey:

Features of the third declension of nouns
1. The noun sazhen in the genitive plural, along with the form of sazhens, also has the form of sazhens. 2. In the instrumental case of the plural, along with the usual ending

Inflected nouns
Among the variously declinable nouns are ten nouns per -mya: burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup, crown, which are inclined in a special way. 1. During

Indeclinable nouns
Indeclinable nouns include those that do not change in cases. Most of the indeclinable nouns are foreign borrowings. In the group we do not decline

Stress in declension of nouns
All nouns in relation to stress can be divided into two main groups: 1) nouns with constant stress (the place of which in all cases remains unchanged); 2) im

Productive ways of forming nouns
Nouns are formed in modern Russian in different ways (see § 100-103). So, a significant number of new nouns appeared as a result of rethinking the

Suffixal, suffixal-prefixed and non-suffixal word formation
Among word-building suffixes, unproductive ones are distinguished, with the help of which new words are not currently formed (for example, the suffix -n is unproductive: pain-zn, life; suffix -uh: p

Formation of nouns by adding stems
The addition of stems is a type of morphological word formation when, as a result of the addition of two or more stems, a new word is formed. This method is widely used in modern Russian.

Transition of words of other parts of speech into nouns
The transition to the category of nouns of words of other parts of speech is called substantiation (from Latin substantivum - noun). Adjectives most often turn into nouns (mainly

Transition of nouns to other parts of speech
Nouns in the process of language development can move into other parts of speech. It is not uncommon to use nouns, such as brother, sister, deed, as pronouns. Wed: T

The meaning of the adjective, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that denote a constant attribute of objects are called adjectives. The semantic basis of the adjective is the designation of quality, attribute, belonging

Ranks of adjectives by meaning
The sign of an object is denoted by an adjective or directly by the lexical meaning of its base (yellow, crimson, cheerful), or through the relation of the object to other objects (brick house,

Quality adjectives
Qualitative adjectives are called such adjectives that denote signs, properties and qualities of objects that we perceive primarily directly, i.e. are direct

Relative adjectives
Relative adjectives are such adjectives that denote a feature not directly, but through its relation to another object, phenomenon or action, i.e. indirectly. They designate

The transition of relative adjectives into qualitative ones
Qualitative and relative adjectives in modern Russian are not closed groups. The grammatical boundary between them is mobile, since the semantic features that allow distinguishing

Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives indicate that an object belongs to a certain person or (less often) to an animal: fathers, sisters, Lizin, Koshkin, etc. The semantic basis of possessive adjectives

Short forms of adjectives
Only qualitative adjectives have a short form. Short adjectives differ from full adjectives in certain morphological features (they do not change by case, they have only the form of gender and number).

The concept of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives
In modern Russian, qualitative adjectives have two degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative. As for the so-called positive degree, it is the original form

Ways of forming forms of comparative degree
In modern Russian, there are two main ways of forming a comparative degree: 1) using the suffixes -ee (-s) and -e, for example: Somehow everything is friendlier and stricter, somehow everything is dearer to you.

Ways of forming superlatives
Superlative forms of qualitative adjectives are also synthetic and analytic. The synthetic form of the superlative degree is formed using the suffixes -eysh-, -a

Declension types of adjectives
The declension of adjectives, in comparison with the declension of nouns, is more unified. In the nominative case of the singular, adjectives have a gender difference: case endings

Ways of forming adjectives
Adjectives in modern Russian are formed in a lexical-syntactic way (advance, stunning, etc.) and with the help of a morphological-syntactic way (exquisite blue

Suffixal way of forming adjectives
The suffixal way of forming adjectives is the most productive in modern Russian. The derivational suffixes of qualitative and relative names are attached

Prefixed way of forming adjectives
The prefixal method of formation is less productive. The following productive prefixes are used: 1) not-, not without-: unsportsmanlike, not loud, unusual, notorious, not unsuccessful, etc .;

Prefix-suffix way of forming adjectives
The prefix-suffix method of forming adjectives in modern Russian is becoming more and more widespread. The following groups of productive consoles are distinguished and

Forming adjectives by adding stems
Compounding as a way of forming adjectives is used in modern Russian more and more often. This is a very productive way of forming words. Most words created

Transition of words from other parts of speech into adjectives
The use of different parts of speech as adjectives is called adjective (Latin adjectivum - adjective). A significant number of participles pass into the category of adjectives,

Transition of adjectives to other parts of speech
Adjectives (most often relative) can sometimes pass into the category of nouns, i.e. able to substantiate. Moving into the class of nouns, the adjective

The meaning of numerals, their morphological features and syntactic functions
Numeral name - a category of words that serve as the names of abstract numbers (two plus three - five), or a certain number of homogeneous objects, expressed in whole or fractional numbers (two rubles

Cardinal numbers
Quantitative numbers include numbers that denote in whole units an abstract number (ten divided by two) or a certain number of homogeneous objects (six books).

Morphological features of cardinal numbers
Morphological features of cardinal numbers are related to their lexical meaning. Quantitative numerals are not peculiar to the category of number, since they lexically express the meaning of the number

Declension of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) is declined as a pronoun this (this, this). The numerals two, three, four have peculiar endings in the nominative and instrumental cases (two, three, four

Syntactic features of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) agrees with the noun in gender, number and case (cf.: one day, one day, one week, etc.). Numerals two, three, four in the nominative form

Collective numbers
Numerals two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, etc. stand out in a special category of collective numerals. In modern Russian, collective numbers

Fractional numbers
Fractional numbers denote fractional quantities, i.e. the number of certain parts of the unit, and represent a combination of them. case of a quantitative numeral (number of parts - numerator of a fraction

Numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred
The numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred are designations for quantities consisting of a whole and its half. The derivation of these words (from "half a second", "half a second", "half a second hundred") in the present

Indefinite-quantitative words
A group of words with the meaning of an indefinite amount (large or small) can also be conditionally attributed to indefinite-quantitative numerals: a lot, a little, a little, a lot, a lot and a few.

Ordinals
Ordinal numbers are words that indicate the order of homogeneous objects when they are counted (first ticket, third question, etc.). Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, appear in

The meaning of pronouns. Correlation of pronouns with other parts of speech
Pronouns include words that, without naming objects or signs, point to them. The specific lexical meaning of the pronoun is obtained only in the context. For example, the pronoun you is either

Pronoun ranks by meaning
By their meaning, as well as by their syntactic role, all pronouns are divided into the following categories: 1. Personal pronouns, we (1 person); you, you (2 person); he, (she, it), they (3rd person) are

Transition of pronouns to other parts of speech
Some pronouns under certain conditions may lose their demonstrative functions and acquire features of other parts of speech. So, the pronouns are mine, ours, myself, draw, that, this and others can

Using other parts of speech as pronouns
The use of different parts of speech as pronouns is called pronominalization (lat. pronomen - pronoun). The following words functionally pass into the category of pronouns: nouns

Meaning, morphological features and syntactic functions of the verb
A verb is a category of words that denote an action or state of an object as a process. The word "process" in this usage has a broad meaning; this word means work

Conjugated and non-conjugated forms of the verb and their syntactic role
Changing the verb by moods, and inside moods by tenses (only in the indicative mood), by persons (in the indicative and partly in the imperative mood) and by numbers, as well as by gender

The indefinite form of the verb, its meaning, formation and syntactic use
The indefinite form (infinitive) is included in the system of verb forms, although it has a very peculiar structure. The semantically indefinite form is similar to the nominative case of the entity's name

Two verb stems
All verb forms, with the exception of the future complex and subjunctive mood, are formed by means of formative suffixes and endings attached to the stem. By education, verbs

From the history of the issue
The aspect category in the Russian language took shape relatively late (at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century), and already in the 17th century. it was reflected in the grammars of M. Smotrytsky and Y. Krizhanich. Category view

The concept of a species category
The aspect category is inherent in all forms of the verb. The verbs decided and decided denote the same action, but differ grammatically. The verb decided is perfective, it denotes an action that

Species formation
When forming forms of a verb, the original form, with a few exceptions, is a verb with the meaning of an imperfect aspect. Perfective verbs are usually formed from verbs n

Aspective pairs of the verb
When forming verbs of one kind from another by means of prefixes, two results are possible:

Verbs that do not have paired forms of another form
Unpaired imperfective verbs include: a) non-prefixed verbs with the suffix -yva- (-iva-) with the meaning of multiplicity. In the modern literary language, such verbs are used

Two aspect verbs
Verbs that combine the meanings of the perfect and imperfect form are two-species, but in the conditions of the context they can act with a meaning characteristic of one form. These are verbs with suffixes -ova

Ways of verb action
The lexico-grammatical category of the verb interacts with the grammatical category of aspect, expressing the modes of verbal action, i.e. those values ​​that are associated with the process of action (some

From the history of the issue
The category of voice has been and still is the subject of close attention of many linguists. “...Different grammarians understood the scope and grammatical content of the category hall in different ways.

Verbs transitive and intransitive
Transitive and intransitive verbs differ in meaning. The basis of such a distinction is the attitude towards the object of the action expressed by the verb. Transitive verbs are those with the meaning of action.

The concept of the category of pledge
According to the currently most common theory, the category of voice is associated with the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive. The grammatical category of the voice is called the verbal cathe

Basic pledges and their formation
Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic. Morphological means in the formation of voices are: a) affix -sya attached to the verb

The concept of the category of inclination
The facts of reality and their connections, being the content of the statement, can be thought of by the speaker as a reality, as a possibility or desirability, as an obligation or a necessity. Dialect score

Verb moods
The indicative mood expresses an action that the speaker thinks is quite real, actually taking place in time (present, past and future): the Urals serve well, have served and will serve on

The concept of the category of time
The category of time in the traditional sense expresses the ratio of the tense of the verb to the moment of speech. The present tense shows that the action expressed by the verb coincides with the moment p

Basic meanings and use of forms of time
Present tense. The forms of the present tense have the following varieties of meaning and use: a) the meaning of a specific action that is carried out at the moment of speech and has a limited value

Person category
The category of person indicates the subject of the action expressed by the verb: the speaker (first person), the speaker's interlocutor (second person), a person or object not participating in speech (third person). Forms 1st and

Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs are those that express actions and states that occur on their own, without their producer (subject). With such verbs, the use of the subject is impossible: it is getting dark, dawn

Verb conjugation types
Changing verbs in the present and future simple tenses according to persons and numbers is called conjugation (in the narrow sense of the word), for conjugation in the broad sense, see § 173. Two types of conjugation - the first

Ways of forming verbs
In the formation of verbs, three morphological ways of word formation are productive to varying degrees: prefixal, suffixal and suffixal-prefixal. Prefix way

Participle as a form of mixed verb-nominal formation
A participle is a non-conjugated form of a verb that defines a subject like an adjective. It denotes a sign of an object, flowing in time, as an action that produces an object.

Participle forms and their formation
The participle in modern Russian has several varieties, which are determined by the grammatical meanings of the verb inherent in the participle: participles are real, reflexive and passive

Transition of participles into adjectives
The presence of signs in participles that are common with adjectives contributes to the transition of participles into adjectives. This transition, observed in previous periods of the history of the Russian language,

The gerund as a form of verb-adverbial formation
A gerund is an unconjugated form of a verb that combines the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb: Waves rush, thundering and sparkling (Tyutch.). The participles rattling and sparkling denote additional

The category of tense in adverbs
Participles, as invariable forms of the verb, are deprived of the opportunity to express morphologically temporary meanings. Participles are characterized only by the relative designation of time. The gerund is incompetent

Transition of gerunds into adverbs
The immutability of the participle and its syntactic role (circumstance) are the basis on which the transition of participles into adverbs takes place. This transition is facilitated by the lack of

The meaning of the adverb, its morphological features and syntactic role
Adverbs include invariable words denoting a sign of an action, state, quality of an object or other sign For example: He wanted to hug and kiss Streltsov, but his throat suddenly

Adverb ranks by meaning
Depending on their meaning, adverbs are divided into two groups - attributive adverbs and circumstantial adverbs. Definitive adverbs characterize an action or attribute in terms of its quality, quantity

Classes of adverbs by education
The correlation of adverbs with other parts of speech indicates their origin and method of formation. Adverbs are correlative with names, pronouns and verbs. Replenishing at the expense of others

Ways of forming adverbs
The formation of adverbs took place and is taking place in various ways. The most characteristic of them are the following: 1) separation of one of the nominal forms from the inflection system with simultaneous

Adverbs formed from adjectives and participles
The most productive group of adverbs formed from adjectives and participles. Without prefixes, adverbs are formed from quality adjectives with the help of suffixes -o, -e: bad, ho

Adverbs formed from nouns
Among the adverbs formed from nouns, non-prepositional formations and prepositional ones stand out. Of the non-prepositional formations, the most productive group of adverbs is the

Adverbs formed from nouns
Adverbs formed from numerals are relatively few in number. Adverbs are formed from quantitative numerals: 1) with the help of the suffix -zhdy: twice, thrice, four times; 2) way

Adverbs formed from pronouns
Among the adverbs of pronominal origin, there are, firstly, adverbs of ancient origin, which have lost living connections with pronominal words in the modern language: where, where, from where, from there, when

Adverbs derived from verbs
Adverbs of verbal formation represent a relatively small group. They occur, as a rule, from gerunds, which, turning into adverbs, lose their aspectual-temporal and voice

Transition of adverbs to other parts of speech
Along with the process of adverbialization (transition to the category of adverbs), which is very active and wide, the opposite process is carried out in the Russian language - the process of transition of adverbs to other lexico-grammars.

Semantic, morphological and syntactic features of impersonal predicative words
Impersonally predicative words, or the category of state, are significant unchangeable nominal and adverbial words that denote a state and are used in the function of a predicate impersonal sentence

Ranks of impersonal predicative words by meaning
The following groups of impersonal predicative words are distinguished by meaning: 1. Impersonal predicative words denoting the mental and physical state of living beings, the state of nature, the environment

Ranks of impersonal predicative words by education
Impersonally predicative words are by origin associated with adjectives, correlative adverbs, and partly nouns. This transition is carried out on the basis of a complex interweaving of St.

The question of impersonal-predicative words in grammatical literature
Impersonal predicative words, as words intermediate between nouns and verbs, began to stand out in Russian grammars from the first third of the 19th century. When highlighting these words, the usual

Characteristic features of service words
Functional words include particles, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives. Functional words, in contrast to significant ones, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not subject names

Particles and their functions in speech
Particles are auxiliary words that express additional semantic shades of sentences, phrases and individual words. So, for example, does a particle relate to a whole sentence and give it a character?

Particle discharges by value
Particles by meaning are divided into three main groups: I. Particles expressing semantic shades of meanings. These particles include: a) indicative: here, out. Here is a bream,

Word-forming and formative particles
Word-forming particles form new words: 1) -something, -either, -something, some- serve to form indefinite pronouns and adverbs: something, somewhere, etc.; 2) neither forms negative pronouns

Morphological composition of prepositions
According to the morphological composition, non-derivative and derivative prepositions are distinguished. 1. Non-derivative, so-called primitive, prepositions cannot be correlated by education with any

Meanings of prepositions
The meanings of prepositions are very diverse and complex and are revealed only in combination with the case form. They can express: spatial relationships: relax in the Crimea and the Caucasus; temporal relationship: p

Conjunctions coordinating and subordinating
By syntactic functions, unions are divided into coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions connect homogeneous members of a sentence, as well as parts of compound sentences. P

Unions single, repeated, double
By use, unions are of three varieties: 1) single, used once. Of the coordinating conjunctions, the union but is typical in this respect (subordinating conjunctions

Modal words as a special category of words in Russian
Modal words are words by which the speaker evaluates his statement as a whole or its individual parts from the point of view of their relation to objective reality. For example: This, ver

Modal word ranks by meaning
By meaning, two groups of modal words are distinguished: 1. Modal words expressing the logical assessment of the statement, the speaker’s confidence in the reality of the message: definitely, true, really

Correlation of modal words with other parts of speech
Modal words as a special lexical and grammatical category of words are correlated with various parts of speech, namely: a) with nouns: truth, fact, law. Wed: True eyes

Lexico-grammatical originality of modal words
Modal words differ from the significant ones, with which they are associated by origin, by the absence of a nominative function. Modal words are not the names of objects, features or processes, about

The concept of interjection
Interjections are words that directly express our feelings, experiences and wills, without naming them. Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech.

The role of interjections in the language
Syntactically, interjections also differ from significant parts of speech, because they, as a rule, are not members of a sentence, although intonationally they are usually associated with sentences to which they adjoin

Interjection ranks by meaning
Interjections in their lexical meaning are divided into two main categories: 1) interjections expressing various feelings (emotional interjections), and 2) interjections expressing will, order, etc.,

Groups of interjections according to the method of formation and origin
According to their formation, all interjections fall into two main groups: primary (primitive) and derivatives. 1. The first group includes primitive interjections, consisting of or from one

Verb interjections
In modern Russian, words are distinguished that, on the one hand, have the structure of interjections and their inherent expression, dynamism, and on the other hand, have verbal features (kind, tense). With

Onomatopoeic words
Words that, in their sound design, are a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, are called onomatopoeic. In their syntactic functions, they are close to interjections. However

Phrase and sentence as basic syntactic units
Syntax as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech includes two main parts: 1) the doctrine of the phrase and 2) the doctrine of the sentence. Of particular note is the section dealing with

The main features of the proposal
Most types of sentence, as mentioned above, correspond to a logical proposition. In a judgment, something is affirmed or denied about something, and in this the so-called prejudice finds its expression.

Brief history
The problem of phrases has long attracted the attention of Russian linguists. In the first grammatical works, the main content of syntax was the doctrine of "word composition", i.e. about connecting words

Types of phrases according to their structure
According to the structure, phrases are divided into simple (two-term) and complex (polynomial). In simple phrases, one word spreads to others with different semantic meanings.

Types of phrases depending on the lexical and grammatical properties of the main word
Depending on which word is the main word in the phrase, the main lexical and grammatical types of phrases differ. The classification on this basis has the following scheme:

Syntactic relations between the components of phrases
Words included in phrases are in different semantic-syntactic relationships with each other. In general, these relationships can be reduced to the main ones: a) attributive (for example: tetra

Ways of expressing syntactic relations in a phrase and in a sentence
The most important means of expressing the relationship between the members of the phrase (and the members of the sentence) is the form of the word. With the help of inflection, a connection is made between all the modified words that act as dependencies.

Types of syntactic connection in a phrase and in a sentence
There are two main types of syntactic connection in a sentence - composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal, independent of each other elements (members of the sentence

Sentences of real and unreal modality. Propositions affirmative and negative
The general meaning of objective modality conveyed in the sentence is differentiated as the meaning of temporal certainty and temporal indefiniteness. In the first case, the pre

Declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences
Depending on the purpose of the statement, sentences are declarative, interrogative and incentive. Narrative sentences are sentences that contain a message about what

exclamatory sentences
Exclamatory sentences are emotionally colored sentences, which are conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. Emotional coloring can have different types of sentences:

Common and non-common suggestions
A sentence is called non-common, consisting only of the main members - the subject and the predicate, for example: She did not answer and turned away (L.); He is young, good (L.); Several years have passed (P

Two-part and one-part sentences
The sentence consists of the main members - the subject and the predicate, and the secondary ones, of which some belong to the subject and together with it form the composition of the subject, others - to the predicate and the image

Simple and compound sentences
A simple sentence has one or two grammatical compositions and thus contains one predicative unit. For example: The morning was fresh and beautiful (L.); In the afternoon she started

The main members of a two-part sentence
A two-part sentence is a sentence that has two grammatical compositions: the composition of the subject and the composition of the predicate. The composition of the subject is the subject with or without words related to it.

Secondary members of the sentence, their syntactic function
The main members of the sentence can be explained by the members, which are called secondary, since they are grammatically dependent on other members of the sentence. The term "minor members of the sentence

Expressing the subject with different parts of speech
The most common form of expressing the subject is the nominative case of a noun. The subject meaning of the noun and the independent nominative case are most appropriate

Expressing the Subject in Phrases
The role of the subject can be phrases that are integral in meaning, lexically or syntactically indecomposable. These include: 1. Composite geographical names (Arctic

Verbal predicate, formally likened to the subject
In the role of the verbal predicate, the forms of the verb of any mood, tense and person act. For example: 1) a verb in the form of the indicative mood: The autumn wind brings sadness (N.); Pugachev m

Verbal predicate, formally dissimilar to the subject
The verbal predicate is expressed: 1) by the infinitive with the meaning of the energetic beginning of the action: Our brethren - to swear (Pomyal.); And new friends, well, hugging, well, kissing ... (Cr.); 2)

Complicated verbal predicate
Complicated forms of a simple verbal predicate include a combination of two verbs or a combination of a verb with different particles. This includes: 1. The combination of two verbs in the same form

Verbal predicate expressed by a phraseological phrase
Simple verbal predicates also include predicates expressed by phraseological combinations with varying degrees of cohesion of parts, since they have a single whole meaning (cf.

Compound verbal predicate with modal verb
This includes such verbs as want, wish, be able, be able, intend, try, try, refuse, hope, be afraid, etc. For example: I wanted to portray ordinary decent people in a new

Compound verbal predicate with predicative adjective
Along with modal verbs, predicative adjectives can be used as the first component of a compound verbal predicate (special short adjectives used as a ska

Predicate expressed by adverb, participle, interjection and phraseological combination
1. The predicate can be expressed by an adverb with or without a bunch, for example: At your age, I was married (L.T.); How inappropriate was this memory (Ch.); After all, I am somewhat akin to her (Gr.). 2

Types of compound predicate
A complex (trinomial, polynomial) is a predicate consisting of three or more parts (the term “complex predicate” is used here not in the sense in which it is sometimes used, see § 259

Form of the verb predicate
The verbal predicate is coordinated with the subject, expressed personal pronoun, in person and number, and in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the subjunctive mood - in gender and number. Nap

Bundle shape
The copula usually correlates with the subject (in the past tense - in gender and number), for example: My whole life has been a guarantee of a faithful date with you (P.). If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, then with

Brief history
The question of secondary members of a sentence in the history of Russian grammar has different solutions. However, two main directions in the doctrine of secondary members of the proposal stand out:

Definitions Agreed and Inconsistent
According to the nature of the syntactic connection of the definition with the word being defined, all definitions are divided into agreed and inconsistent. Agreed definitions are expressed by those parts of speech that

Ways of Expressing Complements
Complements are usually expressed by nouns (with and without prepositions) in oblique cases, as well as by words used in the meaning of nouns (pronominal nouns,

Types of add-ons and their meanings
By virtue of their main meaning - designation of the object of action or state - additions usually refer to sentence members expressed by verbs or impersonal predicative words, i.e. tale

Additions in real and passive turns
A real is a turnover with a direct object with a predicate expressed by a transitive verb. The subject in actual circulation denotes the acting person or object, and the object denotes the person

Ways of Expressing Circumstances
Circumstances can be expressed by adverbs, gerunds, nouns in the instrumental case without a preposition, nouns in oblique cases with prepositions, infinitive, phraseological

Types of circumstances by value
Denoting the qualitative characteristics of an action, state or sign, as well as the conditions that accompany them (an indication of the cause, time, place, etc.), the circumstances are divided into the circumstances of the image

Syntactic and actual division of a sentence
A sentence as a unit of syntax has in its composition members of a sentence that occupy certain syntactic positions. This division of the sentence in terms of its syntactic structure is

Communicative, syntactic and stylistic meaning of word order
The order of words in a sentence - the arrangement of word forms in it - can perform the following functions: 1) communicative (it is a means of actual division of a sentence and, more broadly, of any actualization);

The place of the subject and predicate in a simple sentence
In a declarative sentence, the subject is usually in front of the predicate (the latter is postpositive), for example: Marya Ivanovna went up the stairs with trepidation (P.); They entered the courtyard

The place of the complement in the sentence
The addition (verbal and adjectival) is usually postpositive, for example: I will send you ammunition and tobacco (A.N.T.); About a hundred workers were engaged in clearing warehouses and sites (Azh.). Pre

Place of definition in a sentence
The agreed definition is usually prepositive, for example: A deep gorge blackened to the left ... (Azh.); ... He took out his grief on your sides - the grief of his life (M. G.); It became terrifying in these silences

Place of circumstances in a sentence
The circumstances of the mode of action, expressed by adverbs in -o, -e, are usually prepositive, for example: One of the waves playfully rolls onto the shore, making a defiant noise, crawls to Rahim's head (M. G.). O

Definitely personal suggestions
Definitely-personal sentences are called, the main member of which is expressed in the form of the verb of the first or second person of the present and future tense. The verb in this case does not need a place

Indefinitely personal sentences
Indefinitely personal sentences are called such one-part sentences in which the main member is expressed by the verb in the form of the 3rd person plural of the present and future tenses or in fo

Generalized personal sentences
Generalized-personal are called one-part sentences, the main member of which is expressed by the verb of the 2nd person singular (present and future tense), and the action indicated by the verb in

impersonal proposals
One-part sentences are called impersonal sentences, the main member of which does not allow the designation of the subject of action in the form of the nominative case and names the process or state, regardless of the active

Infinitive sentences
The main member of a one-part sentence can be expressed by an infinitive that does not depend on any other word in the sentence, therefore, with it there can be neither an impersonal verb nor an impersonal

Nominative proposals
Nominative sentences are such one-part sentences, the main member of which is expressed by a noun or a substantiated part of speech in the nominative case. The main term can be expressed

Constructions that coincide in form with nominative sentences
Nominative sentences may coincide in form with some syntactic constructions that are not actually them. These are constructions that either do not contain the meaning of being,

Types of sentence words
Sentence words are divided into several groups depending on their function in speech. Affirmative sentence words: - It smells of sulfur. Is it so necessary? - Yes (Ch.). - St

Types of incomplete sentences
Incomplete sentences are divided into contextual and situational. Contextual sentences are incomplete sentences with unnamed members of the sentence that were mentioned in the context: in the next paragraphs

Incomplete sentences in dialogic speech
Incomplete sentences are especially typical for dialogic speech, which is a combination of replicas or a unity of questions and answers. The peculiarity of dialogic sentences is determined by the fact that in the

Elliptic sentences (sentences with zero predicate)
Elliptic are self-used sentences of a special type, the specific structure of which is the absence of a verbal predicate, moreover, a predicate not mentioned in the context

The concept of homogeneous members
Homogeneous members of a sentence are called members of the same name, connected to each other by a coordinative connection and performing the same syntactic function in the sentence, i.e. combined are the same

Unions with homogeneous members
To connect homogeneous members of a sentence, the following categories of coordinating unions are used: 1. Connecting unions: and, yes (in the meaning of “and”), neither ... nor, etc. The union and can be single and n

Homogeneous definitions
Homogeneous definitions are each directly connected with the word being defined and are in the same relationship to it. Between themselves, homogeneous definitions are connected by coordinating unions and list

Heterogeneous definitions
Definitions are heterogeneous if the preceding definition does not refer directly to the noun being defined, but to a combination of the subsequent definition and the noun being defined.

The form of the predicate with homogeneous subjects
The form of the predicate with homogeneous subjects depends on a number of conditions: word order, the meaning of conjunctions, the lexical meaning of the subject or predicate, etc. 1. With subjects having the form m

Coordination of definitions with the word being defined
The question of agreement in number in the presence of definitions in sentences with homogeneous members arises in two cases: 1) if one definition refers to several homogeneous defined

Prepositions with homogeneous members
Prepositions can be repeated in front of all homogeneous members, for example: Death roams the fields, along the ditches, along the heights of the mountains ... (Kr.). It is possible to omit the same prepositions, but different prepositions are not allowed.

Generalizing words with homogeneous members of a sentence
A generalizing word is usually a grammatical form of expression of a generic concept that unites subordinate concepts on the basis of real proximity, the grammatical form of expression of which is

General concepts
Separation is the semantic and intonation separation of minor members in order to give them some independence in the sentence. Separate members of the sentence contain the element add

Separate agreed definitions
1. As a rule, common definitions are isolated, expressed by a participle or an adjective with words dependent on them and standing after the noun being defined, for example: Cloud, hanging

Separate inconsistent definitions
1. Inconsistent definitions, expressed by indirect cases of nouns, are isolated if it is necessary to emphasize the meaning they express, for example: Headman, in boots and in an Armenian coat, with bu

Separate circumstances expressed by gerunds and participles
1. As a rule, adverbial phrases are separated, i.e. gerunds with explanatory words, acting as secondary predicates or circumstances with different meanings, for example: Pass

Separate circumstances expressed by nouns and adverbs
Depending on the semantic load, weak syntactic connection with the verb-predicate, the degree of prevalence of the turnover, its intentional allocation, the circumstances expressed by it can be isolated.

Separation of revolutions with the value of inclusion, exclusion, substitution
Case forms of nouns with prepositions or prepositional combinations can be isolated: except, instead of, besides, except, excluding, over, etc., with the meaning of inclusion, exclusion, beyond

Separation of clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of the sentence
Along with isolation in the proper sense of the word, i.e. the allocation of secondary members of the sentence, there is an intonation-semantic selection in the sentence of words that can be not only secondary

Introductory words and phrases
Introductory words are words that are not grammatically related to the members of the sentence (i.e., not related to them by the method of agreement, control or adjunction), which are not members of the sentence and express

introductory sentences
The meanings inherent in introductory words and phrases can be expressed in whole sentences that retain the intonational features of introductory constructions. For example: Buran, it seemed to me, is still with

Plug-in structures
Plug-in words, phrases and sentences are called, which introduce additional information, incidental remarks, clarifications, explanations, amendments, etc. into the main sentence. Similar to

The concept of circulation
An address is a word or a combination of words that names the person (or object) to whom the speech is addressed. The appeal distributes the offer, but is not a member of it (i.e. does not perform the function of

Ways of expressing appeal
The natural form of expression of address is a noun in the nominative case, which performs a nominative function. In the Old Russian language, the vocative case was used for this purpose

Brief history
In the works of A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherby, V.V. Vinogradov emphasizes the special meaning of some unions - connecting (A.M. Peshkovsky speaks of composition and subordination after a divisive p

Essence of Attachment
Accession - as a kind of syntactic connection - differs from both composition and subordination. When composing, the elements of the utterance act as equal in syntactical terms.

Structural and grammatical types of connecting structures
In structural and grammatical terms, connecting constructions are not homogeneous. The following can join the main statement: 1) constructions with connecting unions and allied words

Allied connection structures
1. Attaching conjunctions and allied combinations are usually formed by combining coordinating and subordinating unions, as well as some particles and pronominal adverbs with unions and, a. It is these with

Unionless connection structures
Unionless connecting structures, used only after a long pause, are divided into four groups according to their functions: 1) connecting structures that act as members

The concept of a complex sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that has two or more predicative units in its composition, forming a single whole in a semantic, constructive and intonational sense. The difference between

Composition and submission in a complex sentence
By the way the parts are connected, allied and non-union complex sentences are distinguished. The former are divided into two types of complex sentences: 1) compound sentences and 2) complex subordinate sentences.

Means of expressing relationships between parts of a complex sentence
Semantic and syntactic relations between parts of a complex sentence are expressed using the following means: a) conjunctions, b) relative words, c) intonation, d) order of parts. Unions unite

The structure of compound sentences
A complex sentence is called a compound sentence, the parts of which are interconnected by coordinating unions. Communication according to the method of composing gives the parts of a compound sentence a well-known

Connecting relationships
In compound sentences expressing connecting relations, unions serve as a means of connecting parts of a single whole, and, yes, neither (repeating), also, too (the last two with a joining from

adversarial relationship
Compound sentences with opposing conjunctions (a, but, yes, however, but, same, etc.) express relations of opposition or comparison, sometimes with various additional shades (not corresponding

Compound sentences expressing adjunctive relations
Some coordinating conjunctions are used in a compound sentence to express connecting relations, in which the content of the second part of the complex sentence is an additional

A brief history of the issue of a complex sentence
The question of a complex sentence in its history was practically reduced to the classification of subordinate clauses, or, as they were conditionally called, "subordinate clauses", which is closely connected before everything

Complex sentences with conditional and non-verbal dependence of parts
The most common structural indicator of a complex sentence is the verbal and non-verbal dependence of the subordinate clause. This feature is substantiated as follows. Relationship of the subordinate h

Grammatical means of connecting parts in a complex sentence
1. The main syntactic means of communication in a complex sentence are special connecting elements, formal indicators of the interconnectedness of parts. These are subordinating conjunctions

Semantic-structural types of complex sentences
Structural indicators of a complex sentence are, as it was found out, firstly, the nature of the connection between the subordinate clause and the main one (subscriptive and non-proprietary); secondly, grammatical means

Substantive attributive sentences
Substantive attributive sentences, depending on the function of the subordinate part, have two varieties. The function of the subordinate part depends on the extent to which the entity defined by it

Appropriative-defining sentences
Complicated sentences with a definitive clause relating to the pronoun (indicative or attributive) in the main are characterized by the following features: 1) the pronoun g

Explanatory clauses with allied subordination
Explanatory clauses are joined by unions that, as, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, so that, if, if, bye. Clauses with a union that contain a message about a real being

Explanatory clauses with relative subordination
As allied words that attach explanatory clauses, relative pronouns are used who, what, which, what, what, whose and pronominal adverbs where, where, where, when, how

The use of correlative words with explanatory clauses
Complicated sentences with an explanatory clause may have correlative words in the main. The function of these words is not the same. They can be used to enhance, highlight,

Compound sentences with a simultaneity relation
Relations of simultaneity are expressed in sentences with subordinate, attached conjunctions when, bye, how, for now (archaic), while (colloquial), while usually with verbs in the main and adjectives

Compound sentences with a relationship of diversity
The relation of different times is expressed by unions when, while, for the time being, as long as, after, since, as soon as, just, just, just, only, just a little, as, barely, only, before

Complex sentences with comparative relations between parts
Complex sentences can consist of such parts, the content of which is compared. Formally, such sentences have a subordinate clause, since they contain subordinating conjunctions (or union

Complex sentences with explanatory relationships between parts
One of the parts of a complex sentence can explain another, concretizing its meaning or conveying it in other words. The explanatory part is attached to the one explained with the help of unions, that is, and

Complex sentences with several subordinate clauses
Complex sentences can have several subordinate clauses. In complex sentences with several subordinate clauses, two types of relations between the combined parts are possible.

Complex sentences with several main clauses and one subordinate clause
In complex sentences, there can be two (or more) main parts that have one common subordinate clause. The main parts in this case are interconnected by coordinating unions (possibly

Types of non-union complex sentences
There are two main types of non-union complex sentences: correlative with allied complex sentences and non-correlative with them. Sentences of the second type are found comparatively

Varieties of complex syntactic constructions
Depending on various combinations of types of connection between parts, the following types of complex syntactic constructions are possible: 1) with composition and subordination; 2) with an essay and unionless connection

Structural features of complex syntactic integers
Complex syntactic integers can be of homogeneous and non-homogeneous composition. Between homogeneous sentences as part of complex syntactic wholes, a parallel connection is found, between heterogeneous

Paragraph and complex syntactic integer
A paragraph and a complex syntactic whole are units of different levels of division, since the bases of their organization are different (a paragraph does not have a special syntactic design, unlike a complex syntactic

Paragraph in dialogic and monologue text
Paragraph division pursues one common goal - to highlight significant parts of the text. However, parts of the text can be highlighted with different specific targets. Accordingly, the fu

The concept of direct and indirect speech
The statements of other persons included in the author's presentation form the so-called someone else's speech. Depending on the lexico-syntactic means and methods of transmitting someone else's speech, direct speech is distinguished

Direct speech
Direct speech is characterized by the following features: 1) accurately reproduces someone else's statement; 2) is accompanied by the author's words. The purpose of the author's words is the establishment of the very fact of someone else's speech

Indirect speech
Indirect speech is the transmission of someone else's statement in the form of a subordinate clause. Compare: Direct speech Indirect speech Podosh

Improper direct speech
Someone else's speech can be transmitted in fiction by the technique of the so-called improperly direct speech. In this case, lexical and syntactic features are preserved to one degree or another.

Basics of Russian punctuation
Punctuation is a collection of punctuation rules, as well as the system of punctuation marks used in written speech. The main purpose of punctuation is to indicate

Basic Functions of Punctuation Marks
In the modern punctuation system of the Russian language, punctuation marks are functionally significant: they have generalized meanings assigned to them, fixing the patterns of their use. Functionality

Words cannot suddenly cease to be used, suddenly disappear. The transition from active to passive vocabulary occurs gradually. It is important to take into account when we meet an obsolete word in the language, for example, of one or another writer of past years, that he (i.e., the writer) could well perceive this word as a common word, refer to an active vocabulary. But it is also quite possible that the author deliberately resorts to archaizing the language of his work. Therefore, it is always important to refer to the context: 1. cultural and historical (when the author lived, what events took place at that time in the field of politics, social and cultural life, etc.); 2. the context of the work itself. For what purpose does the author use such words: to give special solemnity, to create irony, etc.

The entire dictionary, due to constant changes in social and cultural life, to which the language always “reacts” and in which it always “participates”, the entire dictionary can be divided into two large groups according to the nature of the use of words:

1.Active composition of vocabulary. This includes words that are used by native speakers constantly, have long entered the language and are understandable to everyone.

2.Passive composition of vocabulary. This includes the names of those objects, concepts, qualities that have already been lost, disappeared in the process of history. Or, on the contrary, these are completely new words that are not yet mastered, and native speakers feel this (i.e., the bulk of literate, cultured people, not necessarily only linguists or literary critics).

Words from the passive composition are divided into 3 groups (conditionally):

1.Obsolete

2.obsolete

Consider them:

1.Obsolete are words that are being used less and less in the NLS. M.b. in the dictionary of the litter "obsolete". This applies especially to the pronunciation and forms of words that have variants: some variants are now actively used, while others have now become of little use (but they were once part of the active composition).

Drum: # director - dir e who (now: director a)

Prof e quarrels/professor a

T about poly/ poplar I

2. Obsolete - words. Usually no meetings. In SRY. These include: historicisms, archaisms.

historicisms- these are words that have left the active dictionary, because. once they called realities that were quite understandable for their era, but now these realities have been lost. The main group of historicisms is understandable to modern native speakers of the Russian language, but such words are almost never used in speech, they are used for certain stylistic purposes (for example, when recreating the color of the era, etc.). Historicisms can be used to describe times long gone, or they can refer to a historical period that is closer to us.

# Boyar, archer, chain mail, crossbow, oprichnik. Words of the 20th century: nepman (NEP-new economic policy), workdays, food tax.

Forgotten words: ratai, hello

Most likely, historicisms appear in the language for extralinguistic (extralinguistic) reasons: for example, due to the obsolescence of household items, weapons, the development of technology, etc.

Therefore, it is impossible to find synonyms for historicisms in the SRY.

Archaisms(from the Greek arhaios - ancient) - these are obsolete words denoting realities that were not completely lost, but named differently.

# Verb - speech; boar - boar; this - this one; especially - especially; shame is a spectacle; victoria - victory; rescript - decree.

If historicisms are words that have left the active dictionary forever, then archaisms can return to the active dictionary from the passive one.

Decree, major, leader(in the 20s of the 20th century it began to be actively used again, and before that, even in the time of Pushkin, it was classified as obsolete words and even in the dictionary there was a special mark).

Types of archaisms

1.Lexical archaisms are words that are obsolete in all their meanings and have a corresponding synonym in SRY.

# Vyya - neck; maiden - a teenage girl; barber - hairdresser; lzya - it is possible; actor, comedian

2.Semantic archaisms are words that have been preserved in the SRY, but also have an outdated meaning.

#HPS a shame- "disgrace", and in past eras it meant " spectacle", a disgrace means "to make public"

Stomach in meaning " a life»; the guest – merchant;

Pushkin "The Captain's Daughter": "The Bashkirian was captured with outrageous sheets "- in the meaning. "calling for indignation, rebellion." Wed in SRY - another meaning, cf. expressions: outrageous behavior; outrageous act.

3.Phonetic archaisms are words that differ from modern ones in their phonetic appearance (usually one or two sounds):

#eighteen - eighteen; piit - a poet; historia - history; mirror - mirror("Youth honest mirror") ; number - number.

Some words in SRL now have a different stress than they used to (they are also called accent archaisms):

Muses s ka; ghost a to; symbol about l.

Lermontov: Her mocking ghost a to

And day and night the spirit worries

4.Lexical and derivational (= morphological) archaisms are words that have a different morphological structure in the SRL.

#Nervous - nervous; disaster - disaster; collapse - collapse(Dostoevsky: "He took a step, swayed and collapsed on the floor in a swoon"); shepherd - shepherd

1. New words.

Neologisms(Greek neos - new + logos - concept, word). The emergence of new words in a language is the opposite of the obsolescence of words.

I. General language neologisms. Arise in the language in connection with the emergence of any new concepts.

# Komsomol, five-year plan. A computer. promotion. Named. new musical directions: rap. Names of new branches of science: astrophysics, biophysics, ergonomics- and scientists in these areas began to be called astrophysicists, biophysicists, ergonomists. Named. medicines: novopassitis.

It is characteristic that the newly appeared word immediately leads to the appearance of a new word, created according to a certain pattern (electron => polytron-heattron - climatron - microtron).

1. Actually lexical neologisms. Ways of entry into the language: for example, a word exists in the language, suddenly it has a new synonym. One displaces the other and one of them becomes part of the passive vocabulary (i.e. archaization).

# Now talking locomotive instead of steamer.

In verses 19th century poet Puppeteer: A steamboat rushes quickly in an open field.

steamer instead of pyroscaphe.

Difference instead of difference and difference.

Pushkin "EO": At first, they were boring to each other due to their mutual differences ...; I am always glad to notice the difference between Onegin and me.

Or words that are formed from words that have long existed in the language according to the word-formation models of SRN:

# Space- derived from it: astronaut, cosmodrome, space helmet and etc.

Rocket - rocket launcher, rocket launcher, rocket carrier, rocket launcher.

2. Lexico-semantic neologisms. The word has been in the language for a long time, but it suddenly develops a new meaning.

# Brigadier: 1. "military rank in the Russian army of the 18th century." 2. "leader of a team of people at an enterprise, factory"

Dynasty: 1. “a number of successively ruling monarchs from the same family” 2. “about workers passing from generation to generation skills, glorious labor traditions ( labor dynasty)».

II. Individual neologisms (= contextual speech; = occasional).

These are words created by individuals: poets, writers, public figures with a specific stylistic purpose.

They can be part of the LA:

# Lomonosov, doing science, created the words: pump, pendulum, constellation, full moon, blueprint and etc.

N.M. Karamzin: love, distraction, touching, industry, future.

See Shishkov opposed this: By analogy with the adjective touching, the adverb touching and the noun touching, Shishkov ironically forms: “ The bird is a flying and pecking creature", "tired of a lot of walking", "he spoke to me biting". Shishkov suggests not using these new words, but substitutions: instead of " I saw a touching scene» - « I saw a pitiful and lamentable sight».

Shishkov said that Karamzinists even try to make non-Russian words out of Russian words, instead of Future tense they say future, present – authenticity.

Usually, neologisms created by writers in the context of their work are not widely used, and therefore their novelty remains for many years:

# Mayakovsky: two-meter tall snake.

Or: Feather-clouds, sunset open up!

Eternity flies by endless hours loosened her tail.

Neologisms are created using morphemes known in the language: Chekhov came up with these words: passenger- with the help of the suffix -stvo (cf. brotherhood; students, etc.). To become a man (cf. to become a man); Cool down; become intelligent; choke the window.

Pushkin: küchelbekerno.

Etymology- (Greek etymos "true" + logos "meaning") - therefore - the science of the true meaning of the word.

1. This is a section of linguistics that studies the origin and history of individual words and morphemes.

2. Origin and history of specific words and morphemes. For example: The origin of the word "otter", you can say "Etymology of the word otter»

The structure of the word in the past, the word-formation method from the corresponding generating base, the source and time of the appearance of the word, if possible, are taken into account.

Data from related disciplines are involved: dialectology, ethnography, archeology, history.

For example, if this is an object, then it is necessary to take into account how it functioned, how it was used, etc.

Eye(i.e. eye) cognate word with window.

Cloud with roll.

Etymologists seek to exclude random connections and associations of a given word with others.

For example, the similarity of words otter and tear out is external, in reality the origin and history of these words have nothing in common: the verb comes from the Old Russian shit(cf. modern tear), which is related to the Lithuanian dirti - "rip off", the Greek "dero" (with the same meaning) and some verbs in other Indo-European languages, and otters and related to the Lithuanian udra in the same meaning, the Greek hydra - "water snake" and hydor - "water" (literally: otter- "aquatic animal").

Dictionaries:

Preobrazhensky A.G. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language.

Chernykh P.I. Historical and etymological dictionary of the Russian language. In 2 volumes. - M., 1994.

Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. In 4 volumes. - M., 2008.