One of the components of artillery was anti-aircraft artillery, designed to destroy air targets. Organizationally, anti-aircraft artillery was part of the military branches (navy, air force, ground forces) and at the same time constituted the country's air defense system. It provided both the protection of the airspace of the country as a whole, and the cover of individual territories or objects. The weapons of anti-aircraft artillery included anti-aircraft, as a rule, heavy machine guns, guns and rockets.
An anti-aircraft gun (cannon) is a specialized artillery gun on a carriage or self-propelled chassis, with circular fire and a high elevation angle, designed to combat enemy aircraft. It is characterized by a high muzzle velocity and aiming accuracy; in this regard, anti-aircraft guns were often used as anti-tank guns.
By caliber, anti-aircraft guns were divided into small-caliber (20-75 mm), medium-caliber (76-100 mm), large-caliber (over 100 mm). By design features, automatic and semi-automatic guns were distinguished. According to the method of placement, the guns were classified into stationary (fortress, ship, armored train), self-propelled (wheeled, half-tracked or tracked) and trailed (towed).
The anti-aircraft batteries of large and medium caliber, as a rule, included anti-aircraft artillery fire control devices, reconnaissance and target designation radars, as well as gun guidance stations. Such batteries later became known as anti-aircraft artillery systems. They made it possible to detect targets, to carry out automatic aiming of guns at them and to fire in any weather conditions, time of year and day. The main methods of firing are barrage fire at predetermined lines and fire at lines where bombs are likely to be dropped by enemy aircraft.
The shells of anti-aircraft guns hit targets with fragments formed from the rupture of the projectile body (sometimes ready-made elements that are in the projectile body). The projectile was detonated using contact fuses (small caliber projectiles) or remote fuses (medium and large caliber projectiles).
Anti-aircraft artillery arose even before the outbreak of the First World War in Germany and France. In Russia, 76-mm anti-aircraft guns were manufactured in 1915. As aviation developed, anti-aircraft artillery also improved. To defeat bombers flying at high altitudes, artillery was needed with such a reach in height and with such a powerful projectile that could only be achieved in guns of large caliber. And for the destruction of low-flying high-speed aircraft, rapid-fire small-caliber artillery was needed. So, in addition to the former medium-caliber anti-aircraft artillery, artillery of small and large caliber arose. Anti-aircraft guns of various calibers were created in a mobile (towed or mounted on cars) and less often, in a stationary version. The guns fired fragmentation tracer and armor-piercing shells, were highly maneuverable and could be used to repel attacks from enemy armored forces. In the years between the two wars, work continued on medium-caliber anti-aircraft artillery guns. The best 75-76-mm guns of this period had a height reach of about 9,500 m, and a rate of fire of up to 20 rounds per minute. In this class, there was a desire to increase calibers to 80; 83.5; 85; 88 and 90 mm. The reach of these guns in height increased to 10 - 11 thousand meters. The guns of the last three calibers were the main guns of the medium-caliber anti-aircraft artillery of the USSR, Germany and the USA during the Second World War. All of them were intended for use in combat formations of troops, were relatively light, maneuverable, quickly prepared for battle and fired fragmentation grenades with remote fuses. In the 30s, new 105-mm anti-aircraft guns were created in France, in the USA, Sweden and Japan, and 102-mm in England and Italy. The maximum reach of the best of the 105-mm guns of this period is 12 thousand meters, the elevation angle is 80 °, the rate of fire is up to 15 rounds per minute. It was on guns of large-caliber anti-aircraft artillery that first appeared power electric motors for aiming and complex energy management, which marked the beginning of the electrification of anti-aircraft guns. In the interwar period, rangefinders and searchlights began to be used, telephone intra-battery communication was used, and prefabricated trunks appeared that made it possible to replace obsolete elements.
In World War II, rapid-fire automatic guns, shells with mechanical and radio fuses, artillery anti-aircraft fire control devices, reconnaissance and target designation radars, as well as gun guidance stations were already used.
The structural unit of anti-aircraft artillery was a battery, which, as a rule, consisted of 4 - 8 anti-aircraft guns. In some countries, the number of guns in a battery depended on their caliber. For example, in Germany, a battery of heavy guns consisted of 4-6 guns, a battery of light guns - of 9-16, a mixed battery - of 8 medium and 3 light guns.
Batteries of light anti-aircraft guns were used to counter low-flying aircraft, since they had a high rate of fire, mobility and could quickly maneuver trajectories in vertical and horizontal planes. Many batteries were equipped with an anti-aircraft artillery fire control device. They were most effective at an altitude of 1-4 km. depending on caliber. And at ultra-low altitudes (up to 250 m) they had no alternative. Best results multi-barrel installations reached, although they had a higher consumption of ammunition.
Light guns were used to cover infantry troops, tank and motorized units, defend various objects, and were part of anti-aircraft units. They could be used to combat enemy manpower and armored vehicles. Small-caliber artillery during the war years was the most massive. The best gun is considered to be a 40-mm cannon from the Swedish company Bofors.
Batteries of medium anti-aircraft guns were the main means of combating enemy aircraft, provided that fire control devices were used. It was on the quality of these devices that the effectiveness of the fire depended. Medium guns had high mobility, they were used both in stationary and mobile installations. The effective range of the guns was 5-7 km. As a rule, the zone of destruction of aircraft by fragments of an exploding projectile reached a radius of 100 m. The 88-mm German cannon is considered the best weapon.
Batteries of heavy guns were used mainly in the air defense system to cover cities and important military installations. Most of the heavy guns were stationary and equipped, in addition to guidance devices, with radars. Also, on some guns, electrification was used in the guidance and ammunition system. The use of towed heavy guns limited their maneuverability, so they were more often mounted on railway platforms. Heavy guns were most effective in hitting high-flying targets at altitudes up to 8-10 km. At the same time, the main task of such guns was more of a barrage than the direct destruction of enemy aircraft, since the average consumption of ammunition for one downed aircraft was 5-8 thousand shells. The number of heavy anti-aircraft guns fired, compared with small-caliber and medium-sized ones, was significantly less and amounted to approximately 2-5% of the total amount of anti-aircraft artillery.
Based on the results of the Second World War the best system Air defense was possessed by Germany, which not only had almost half of the anti-aircraft guns produced by all countries, but also had the most rationally organized system. This is confirmed by the data of American sources. During the war years, the US Air Force lost 18,418 aircraft in Europe, 7,821 (42%) of which were shot down by anti-aircraft artillery. In addition, due to anti-aircraft cover, 40% of the bombings were carried out outside the established targets. The effectiveness of Soviet anti-aircraft artillery is up to 20% of downed aircraft.
Estimated minimum number of anti-aircraft guns fired by some countries by types of guns (without transferred/received)
|
The country |
Small-caliber guns | medium caliber | large caliber |
Total |
| United Kingdom | 11 308 | 5 302 | ||
| Germany | 21 694 | 5 207 | ||
| Italy | 1 328 | — | ||
| Poland | 94 | — | ||
| the USSR | 15 685 | — | ||
| USA | 55 224 | 1 550 | ||
| France | 1 700 | — | 2294 | |
|
Czechoslovakia |
129 | 258 | — | |
| 36 540 | 3114 | 3 665 | 43 319 | |
|
Total |
432 922 | 1 1 0 405 | 15 724 |
559 051 |
It is difficult to shoot at a moving tank. The artilleryman must quickly and accurately point the gun, quickly load it, and fire shell after shell as soon as possible.
You have seen that when shooting at a moving target, almost every time before firing, you have to change the aiming of the gun, depending on the movement of the target. In this case, it is necessary to shoot with a lead, so that the projectile does not fly to where the target is at the time of the shot, but to the point to which, according to the calculations, the target should approach and the projectile should fly at the same time. Only then, as they say, will the problem of meeting the projectile with the target be solved.
But then the enemy appeared in the air. Enemy aircraft help their troops by attacking from above. Obviously, our gunners must give a decisive rebuff to the enemy in this case as well. They have fast-firing and powerful guns that successfully cope with armored vehicles - tanks. Is it really impossible to hit an aircraft from an anti-tank gun - this fragile machine, clearly looming in a cloudless sky?
At first glance, it may seem that there is no point in even asking such a question. After all, an anti-tank gun, with which you are already familiar, can throw shells at a distance of up to 8 kilometers, and the distance to aircraft attacking infantry can be much less. As if in these new conditions, shooting at an aircraft will not differ much from shooting at a tank.
However, in reality this is not at all the case. Shooting at an aircraft is much more difficult than shooting at a tank. Aircraft can suddenly appear in any direction relative to the gun, while the direction of movement of tanks is often limited by various types of obstacles. Planes fly at high speeds, reaching up to 200-300 meters per second, while the speed of tanks on the battlefield (376) usually does not exceed 20 meters per second. Hence, the duration of the aircraft's stay under artillery fire is also short - approximately 1–2 minutes or even less. It is clear that for firing at aircraft, guns are needed that have a very high agility and rate of fire.
As we will see later, determining the position of a target in the air is much more difficult than a target moving on the ground. If, when shooting at a tank, it is enough to know the range and direction, then when shooting at an aircraft, one must also take into account the height of the target. The last circumstance significantly complicates the task of meeting. In order to successfully shoot at aerial targets, one has to use special devices that help to quickly solve the difficult task of meeting. It is impossible to do without these devices.
But let's say that you still decide to shoot at the plane from the 57-mm anti-tank gun you already know. You are her commander. Enemy planes are rushing towards you at an altitude of about two kilometers. You quickly decide to meet them with fire, realizing that there is not a second to lose. After all, for every second the enemy is approaching you at least a hundred meters.
You already know that with any kind of shooting, first of all, you need to know the distance to the target, the range to it. How to determine the distance to the aircraft?
It turns out that this is not easy to do. Remember that you determined the distance to enemy tanks quite accurately by eye; you knew the area, you imagined how far the local objects chosen in advance - landmarks - would be. Using these landmarks, you determined how far the target was from you.
But there are no objects in the sky, no landmarks. It is very difficult to determine by eye whether an airplane is far or close, at what height it flies: you can make a mistake not only by a hundred meters, but even by 1-2 kilometers. And to open fire, you need to determine the range to the target with greater accuracy.
You quickly pick up your binoculars and decide to determine the range of an enemy aircraft from its angular size using the binoculars goniometric reticle.
It is not easy to aim the binoculars at a small target in the sky: the hand trembles a little, and the plane that was caught disappears from the field of view of the binoculars. But now, almost by chance, you manage to catch the moment when the binoculars grid just falls against the plane (Fig. 326). At this moment, you determine the distance to the aircraft.
You see: the plane occupies a little more than half of the small division of the goniometric grid - in other words, its wingspan is visible at an angle of 3 "thousandths". From the outline of the plane, you learned that it was a fighter-bomber; The wingspan of such an aircraft is approximately 15 meters. (377)
Without thinking, you decide that the range to the aircraft is 5000 meters (Fig. 327), Calculating the range, you, of course, do not forget about time either: your gaze falls on the second hand of the clock, and you remember the moment when you determined the range to the aircraft .
You quickly give the command: “On the plane. Frag grenade. Sight 28".
The gunner deftly carries out your command. Turning the gun in the direction of the aircraft, he quickly turns the flywheel of the lifting mechanism, without taking his eyes off the panorama ocular tube.
You anxiously count the seconds. When you commanded the sight, you took into account that it would take about 15 seconds to prepare the gun for a shot (this is the so-called working time), and about another 5 seconds for the projectile to fly to the target. But in these 20 seconds, the plane will have time to approach 2,000 meters. 
Therefore, you ordered the sight not at 5, but at 3 thousand meters. This means that if the gun is not ready to fire after 15 seconds, if the gunner is late to point the gun, then all your calculations will go down the drain - the gun will send a projectile to the point that the plane has already flown.
There are only 2 seconds left, and the gunner is still working the flywheel of the lifting mechanism.
Point faster! - you shout to the gunner.
But at this moment, the gunner's hand stops. The lifting mechanism no longer works: the gun is given the highest possible elevation angle for it, but the target - the aircraft - is not visible in the panorama.
The aircraft is outside the range of the gun fig. 326): your weapon cannot (378)
to hit an aircraft, since the trajectory of an anti-tank gun projectile rises no higher than one and a half kilometers, and the aircraft flies at an altitude of two kilometers. The lifting mechanism does not allow you to increase the reach; it is so arranged that the gun cannot be given an elevation angle of more than 25 degrees. From this, the "dead funnel", that is, the unfired part of the space above the gun, turns out to be very large (see Fig. 328). If an aircraft penetrates the “dead funnel”, it can fly over the gun with impunity even at an altitude of less than one and a half kilometers.
At this dangerous moment for you, haze from shell explosions suddenly appears around the aircraft, and you hear frequent gunfire from behind. This is met by an air enemy with special weapons designed to fire at air targets - anti-aircraft guns. Why did they succeed in what your anti-tank gun turned out to be unbearable?
FROM ANTI-AIRCAST MACHINE
You decide to go to the firing position of the anti-aircraft guns to see how they fire.
When you were still approaching the position, you already noticed that the barrels of these guns were pointed upwards, almost vertically.
The thought involuntarily flashed through your mind - was it possible to somehow put the barrel of an anti-tank gun at a large elevation angle, for example, to undermine the ground under the coulters for this, or to raise the gun wheel higher. This is exactly how field 76-mm guns of the 1902 model were “adapted” for firing at air targets. These guns were placed with wheels not on the ground, but on special pedestals - anti-aircraft machines of a primitive design (Fig. 329). Thanks to such a machine tool, it was possible to give the gun a much larger elevation angle, and therefore eliminate the main obstacle that did not allow firing at an air enemy from a conventional "ground" gun.
The anti-aircraft machine made it possible not only to raise the barrel high, but also to quickly turn the entire gun in any direction for a full circle. (379)
However, the "adapted" gun had many drawbacks. Such a tool still had a significant "dead funnel" (Fig. 330); however, it was less than that of a gun that stood directly on the ground.
In addition, although the gun, raised on an anti-aircraft machine, had the ability to throw shells to a greater height (up to 3–4 kilometers), at the same time, due to an increase in the smallest elevation angle, a new drawback appeared - the “dead sector” (see Fig. 330). As a result, the reach of the gun, despite the decrease in the "dead funnel", increased slightly.
At the beginning of the First World War (in 1914), "adapted" guns were the only means of combating aircraft, which then
| {380} |
flew over the battlefield relatively low and at low speed. Of course, these guns would be completely incapable of fighting modern aircraft, which fly much higher and faster.
In fact, if the plane were flying at an altitude of 4 kilometers, it would already be completely safe. And if it flew at a speed of 200 meters per second at an altitude of 2 1/2–3 kilometers, then it would pass the entire reach zone of 6–7 kilometers (not counting the “dead funnel”) in no more than 30 seconds. In such a short period of time, an “adapted” gun, at best, would have managed to fire only 2-3 shots. Yes, it could not shoot faster. After all, in those days there were no automatic devices, quickly problem solving meetings, therefore, to determine the settings of sighting devices, it was necessary to use special tables and graphs, it was necessary to perform various calculations, issue commands, manually set on sights commanded divisions, manually open and close the shutter when loading, and all this took a lot of time. In addition, the shooting then did not differ in sufficient accuracy. It is clear that in such conditions it would be impossible to count on success.
"Adjusted" guns were used throughout the First World War. But even then, special anti-aircraft guns began to appear, which had the best ballistic qualities. The first anti-aircraft gun of the 1914 model was created at the Putilov factory by the Russian designer F.F. Lender.
The development of aviation went at a rapid pace. In this regard, anti-aircraft guns were also continuously improved.
Decades after the end civil war we have created new, even more advanced models of anti-aircraft guns, capable of throwing their shells to a height of even more than 10 kilometers. And thanks to automatic fire control devices, modern anti-aircraft guns have acquired the ability to fire very quickly and accurately.
anti-aircraft guns
But then you came to the firing position, where there are anti-aircraft guns. See how they are being fired (Fig. 331).
In front of you are 85-mm anti-aircraft guns of the 1939 model. First of all, the position of the long barrels of these guns is striking: they are directed almost vertically upwards. Putting the barrel of an anti-aircraft gun in this position allows its lifting mechanism. Obviously, there is not that main obstacle that prevented you from shooting at a high-flying aircraft: with the help of the lifting mechanism of your anti-tank gun, you could not give it the desired elevation angle, you remember that. (381)
As you get closer to an anti-aircraft gun, you notice that it is designed completely differently than a gun designed to fire at ground targets. The anti-aircraft gun does not have frames and such wheels as the guns you know. The anti-aircraft gun has a four-wheeled metal platform on which a pedestal is fixedly mounted. The platform is fixed on the ground by side supports laid aside. In the upper part of the pedestal there is a swivel, and a cradle is fixed on it, together with the barrel and recoil devices. Swivel and lifting mechanisms are mounted on the swivel.
| {382} |
The rotary mechanism of the gun is designed in such a way that it allows you to quickly and without much effort turn the barrel right and left to any angle, to a full circle, that is, the gun has a horizontal firing of 360 degrees; at the same time, the platform with the pedestal always remains motionless in its place.
Using the lifting mechanism, which operates easily and smoothly, you can also quickly give the gun any elevation angle from -3 degrees (below the horizon) to +82 degrees (above the horizon). The gun can really shoot almost vertically upwards, to the zenith, and therefore it is rightfully called an anti-aircraft gun.
When firing from such a gun, the “dead funnel” is quite insignificant (Fig. 332). The enemy aircraft, having penetrated into the "dead funnel", quickly exits it and again falls into the affected space. Indeed, at an altitude of 2000 meters, the diameter of the "dead funnel" is approximately 400 meters, and to cover this distance, a modern aircraft needs only 2-3 seconds.
What are the features of firing from anti-aircraft guns and how is this firing carried out?
First of all, we note that it is impossible to predict where the enemy aircraft will appear and in what direction it will fly. Therefore, it is impossible to aim the guns at the target in advance. And yet, if a target appears, you immediately need to open fire on it to kill, and this requires very quickly to determine the direction of fire, the elevation angle and the installation of the fuse. However, it is not enough to determine these data once, they must be determined continuously and very quickly, since the position of the aircraft in space is constantly changing. Just as quickly, this data must be transmitted to the firing position so that the guns can fire shots at the right moments without delay. (383)
It has already been said before that to determine the position of a target in the air, two coordinates are not enough: in addition to the range and direction (horizontal azimuth), you also need to know the height of the target (Fig. 333). In anti-aircraft artillery, the range and height of the target are determined in meters using a range finder-altimeter (Fig. 334). The direction to the target, or the so-called horizontal azimuth, is also determined using a rangefinder-altimeter or special optical instruments, for example, it can be determined using the commander's TZK anti-aircraft tube or the commander's BI tube (Fig. 335). The azimuth is counted in "thousandths" from the direction to the south counterclockwise.
You already know that if you shoot at the point where the plane is at the time of the shot, you will get a miss, because during the flight of the projectile the plane will have time to retreat to considerable distance from where the break occurs. Obviously, the guns must send projectiles to another,
| {384} |
to the “anticipated” point, that is, to where, according to calculations, the projectile and the flying aircraft should meet.
Suppose that our gun is aimed at the so-called "current" point A c, that is, to the point at which the aircraft will be at the time of the shot (Fig. 336). During the flight of the projectile, that is, by the time it bursts at the point A c, the plane will have time to move to the point BUT y . From this it is clear that in order to hit the target, it is necessary to direct the gun to the point BUT y align="right"> and fire while the plane is still at the current point BUT in.
The path traveled by the aircraft from the current point BUT to the point BUT y, which in this case is the "preemptive" point, is not difficult to determine if you know the time of flight of the projectile ( t) and aircraft speed ( V); the product of these values will give the desired value of the path ( S=Vt). {385}
Projectile flight time ( t) the shooter can determine from the tables he has. The speed of the aircraft V) can be determined by eye or graphically. It's done like this.
With the help of optical observation devices used in anti-aircraft artillery, the coordinates of the point at which it is located in this moment aircraft, and put a point on the tablet - the projection of the aircraft on a horizontal plane. After some time (for example, after 10 seconds), the coordinates of the aircraft are determined again - they turn out to be different, since the aircraft has moved during this time. This second point is also applied to the tablet. Now it remains to measure the distance on the tablet between these two points and divide it by the "observation time", that is, by the number of seconds that elapsed between the two measurements. This is the speed of the aircraft.
However, all these data are not enough to calculate the position of the "anticipated" point. We must also take into account the "working time", that is, the time required to complete all the preparatory work for the shot
| {386} |
(loading guns, aiming, etc.). Now, knowing the so-called "preemptive time", consisting of "working time" and "flight time" (the flight time of the projectile), you can solve the problem of meeting - to find the coordinates of the predicted point, that is, the predicted horizontal range and the predicted azimuth (Fig. 337) with a constant target height.
The solution of the meeting problem, as can be seen from the previous reasoning, is based on the assumption that the target moves at the same height in a straight line and at the same speed in "preemptive time". Making such an assumption, we do not introduce a big error into the calculations, since in the "preemptive time", calculated in seconds, the target does not have time to change the flight altitude, direction and speed to such an extent that this would significantly affect the accuracy of shooting. From here it is also clear that the smaller the "preemptive time", the more accurate the shooting.
But gunners firing 85mm anti-aircraft guns do not have to do the calculations themselves to solve the rendezvous problem. This task is completely solved with the help of a special anti-aircraft artillery fire control device, or, in short, POISOT. This device very quickly determines the coordinates of a pre-empted point and develops the settings for the gun and fuse for firing at this point.
POISOT - AN ESSENTIAL ASSISTANT OF THE ANTI-AGNITOR
Let us come closer to the POISOT device and see how it is used.
You see a large rectangular box mounted on a pedestal (Fig. 338).
At first glance, you are convinced that this device has a very complex design. You see many different details on it: scales, disks, flywheels with handles, etc. POISOT is a special kind of calculating machine that automatically and accurately performs all the necessary calculations. It is clear to you, of course, that this machine by itself cannot solve the difficult task of meeting without the participation of people who know the technique well. These people, experts in their field, are located near POISOT, surrounding him from all sides.
On one side of the device there are two people - the azimuth gunner and the altitude adjuster. The gunner looks into the eyepiece of the azimuth finder and rotates the flywheel guidance in azimuth. He keeps the target on the vertical line of sight all the time, as a result of which the coordinates of the "current" azimuth are continuously generated in the device. Altitude setter operating handwheel to the right of azimuth (387)
>| {388} |
sight, sets the commanded flight altitude of the target on a special scale against the pointer.
Two people also work next to the gunner in azimuth at the adjacent wall of the device. One of them - combining lateral lead - rotates the flywheel and achieves that in the window above the flywheel, the disk rotates in the same direction and at the same speed as the black arrow on the disk. The other one, which combines the lead in range, rotates its flywheel, achieving the same movement of the disk in the corresponding window.
Three people work on the opposite side of the gunner in azimuth. One of them - the gunner in the elevation angle of the target - looks into the eyepiece of the elevation angle sight and, by rotating the flywheel, aligns the horizontal line of the sight with the target. The other rotates two flywheels simultaneously and combines the vertical and horizontal threads with the same point indicated to him on the parallaxer disk. It takes into account the base (the distance from POISOT to the firing position), as well as the speed and direction of the wind. Finally, the third works on the fuse setting scale. By turning the handwheel, it aligns the scale pointer with the curve that corresponds to the commanded height.
Two people work at the last, fourth wall of the device. One of them rotates the flywheel for combining the elevation angle, and the other - the flywheel for combining the flight times of the projectile. Both of them align the pointers with the commanded curves on the respective scales.
Thus, those working at POISOT only have to combine the arrows and pointers on the disks and scales, and depending on this, all the data necessary for firing are accurately generated by the mechanisms inside the device.
In order for the device to start working, it is only necessary to set the height of the target relative to the device. The other two input quantities - the azimuth and the elevation angle of the target - necessary for the device to solve the problem of meeting, are entered into the device continuously in the process of the pickup itself. The height of the target comes to POISOT usually from a range finder or from a radar station.
When POISOT is working, it is possible at any moment to find out at what point in space the plane is now - in other words, all three of its coordinates.
But POISOT is not limited to this: its mechanisms also calculate the speed and direction of the aircraft. These mechanisms work depending on the rotation of the azimuth and elevation sights, through the eyepieces of which the gunners continuously observe the aircraft.
But even this is not enough: POISOT not only knows where the plane is at the moment, where and at what speed it is flying, it also knows where the plane will be in a certain number of seconds and where it is necessary to send a projectile so that it meets the plane. (389)
In addition, POISOT continuously transmits to the guns the necessary settings: azimuth, elevation and fuse setting. How does POISOT do this, how does he control the tools? POISOT is connected by wires to all the guns of the battery. Through these wires, the "orders" of POISOT - electric currents - are carried with the speed of lightning (Fig. 339). But this is no ordinary telephone transmission; it is extremely inconvenient to use the telephone in such conditions, since it would take several seconds to transmit each order or command.
The transmission of "orders" here is based on a completely different principle. Electric currents from POISOT do not go to telephone sets, but to special devices mounted on each gun. The mechanisms of these devices are hidden in small boxes, on the front side of which there are disks with scales and arrows (Fig. 340). Such devices are called "receiving". These include: "receiving azimuth", "receiving elevation" and "receiving fuse". In addition, each gun has one more device - a mechanical fuse installer, connected by a mechanical transmission to the "receiving fuse".
The electric current coming from the POISOT causes the hands of the receiving instruments to rotate. The numbers of the gun crew, located at the “receiving” azimuth and elevation angle, all the time follow the arrows of their instruments and, by rotating the flywheels of the rotary and lifting mechanisms of the guns, combine the zero risks of the scales with the pointers of the arrows. When the zero marks of the scales are aligned with the pointers of the arrows, this means that the gun is directed so that when fired, the projectile will fly to the point where, according to POISOT's calculation, this projectile should meet the aircraft.
Now let's see how the fuse is installed. One of the gun numbers, located near the “receiving fuse”, rotates the flywheel of this device, achieving alignment of the zero risk of the scale with the arrow pointer. At the same time, another number, holding the cartridge by the sleeve, puts the projectile into a special socket of the mechanical fuse installer (in the so-called "receiver") and makes two turns with the "receiving fuse" drive handle. Depending on this, the fuze setter mechanism rotates the fuze distance ring just as far as required (390)
POISOT. Thus, the setting of the fuse continuously changes at the direction of POISOT in accordance with the movement of the aircraft in the sky.
As you can see, neither for aiming the guns at the aircraft, nor for setting the fuses, any commands are needed. Everything is carried out according to the instructions of the devices.
The battery is silent. Meanwhile, the barrels of the guns are turning all the time, as if following the movement of aircraft barely visible in the sky.
But then the command “Fire” is heard ... In an instant, the cartridges are removed from the devices and put into the barrels. The gates close automatically. Another moment, and a volley of all guns thunders.
However, the planes continue to fly quietly. The distance to the planes is so great that the shells cannot immediately reach them.
Meanwhile, volleys follow one after another at regular intervals. 3 volleys sounded, and there are no gaps in the sky.
Finally, the haze of discontinuities appears. They surround the enemy from all sides. One plane separates from the rest; it burns... Leaving behind a trail of black smoke, it falls down. (391)
But the guns do not stop. Shells overtake two more planes. One also catches fire and falls down. The other is on the decline. The problem is solved - the link of enemy aircraft is destroyed.
RADIO ECHO
However, it is not always possible to use a range finder-altimeter and other optical instruments to determine the coordinates of an air target. Only in conditions of good visibility, that is, during the day, can these devices be successfully used.
But anti-aircraft gunners are by no means unarmed at night, and in foggy weather, when the target is not visible. They have technical means that allow you to accurately determine the position of the target in the air under any visibility conditions, regardless of the time of day, season and weather conditions.
Relatively recently, sound detectors were the main means of detecting aircraft in the absence of visibility. These devices had large horns, which, like giant ears, could pick up the characteristic sound of the propeller and engine of an aircraft located at a distance of 15–20 kilometers.
The sound pickup had four widely spaced "ears" (Fig. 341).
One pair of horizontally located "ears" made it possible to determine the direction to the sound source (azimuth), and the other pair of vertically located "ears" - the elevation angle of the target.
Each pair of "ears" swiveled up, down, and sideways until it sounded like the plane was directly in front of the hearers.
| {392} |
them. Then the sound pickup was sent to the plane (Fig. 342). The position of the sound detector aimed at the target was marked with special instruments, with the help of which it was possible to determine at any moment where the so-called searchlight should be directed so that its beam would make the aircraft visible (see Fig. 341).
By rotating the flywheels of the instruments, with the help of electric motors, the spotlight was turned in the direction indicated by the sound pickup. When the bright beam of the searchlight flashed, at the end of it the sparkling silhouette of the aircraft was clearly visible. He was immediately picked up by two more beams of accompanying searchlights (Fig. 343).
But the sound pickup had many shortcomings. First of all, its range was extremely limited. To catch the sound from an aircraft from a distance of more than two tens of kilometers for a sound detector is an impossible task, but for gunners it is very important to get information about approaching enemy aircraft as soon as possible in order to prepare in time for their meeting.
The sound detector is very sensitive to extraneous noise, and as soon as the artillery opened fire, the work of the sound detector became much more difficult.
The sound detector could not determine the range of the aircraft, it only gave a direction to the source of the sound; he also could not detect the presence in the air of silent objects - gliders and balloons. (393)
Finally, when determining the location of the target from the data of the sound pickup, significant errors were obtained due to the fact that the sound wave propagates relatively slowly. For example, if 
10 kilometers from the target, then the sound from it reaches in about 30 seconds, and during this time the plane will have time to move several kilometers.
These shortcomings do not have another means of detecting aircraft, which was widely used during the Second World War. This is radar.
It turns out that with the help of radio waves it is possible to detect enemy aircraft and ships, to know their exact location. This use of radio to detect targets is called radar.
What is the basis of the operation of a radar station (Fig. 344) and how can distance be measured using radio waves?
Each of us knows the echo phenomenon. Standing on the river bank, you let out a staccato cry. The sound wave caused by this cry propagates in the surrounding space, reaches the opposite steep bank and is reflected from it. After a while, the reflected wave reaches your ear and you hear a repetition of your own scream, greatly attenuated. This is the echo.
By the second hand of the clock, you can see how long it took the sound to travel from you to the opposite shore and back. Let's assume that the junior has covered this double distance in 3 seconds (Fig. 345). Therefore, the distance in one direction the sound traveled in 1.5 seconds. The speed of propagation of sound waves is known - about 340 meters per second. Thus, the distance that the sound traveled in 1.5 seconds is approximately 510 meters.
Note that you would not be able to measure this distance if you emitted not a jerky, but a drawling sound. In this case, the reflected sound would be drowned out by your scream. (394)
Based on this property - the reflection of waves - the radar station works. Only here we are dealing with radio waves, the nature of which, of course, is completely different from that of sound waves.
Radio waves, propagating in a certain direction, are reflected from obstacles that are encountered on the way, especially from those that are conductors of electric current. For this reason, a metal plane is "seen" by radio waves very well.
Each radar station has a source of radio waves, that is, a transmitter, and, in addition, a sensitive receiver that picks up very weak radio waves.
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The transmitter radiates radio waves into the surrounding space (Fig. 346). If there is a target in the air - an airplane, then the radio waves are scattered by the target (reflected from it), and the receiver receives these scattered waves. The receiver is designed so that when it receives radio waves reflected from the target, an electric current is generated in it. Thus, the presence of current in the receiver indicates that somewhere in space there is a target.
But this is not enough. It is much more important to determine the direction in which the target is currently located. This can be easily done thanks to the special design of the transmitter antenna. The antenna does not send radio waves in all directions, but in a narrow beam, or a directed radio beam. They "catch" the target with a radio beam in the same way as with the light beam of a conventional searchlight. The radio beam is rotated in all directions and the receiver is monitored at the same time. As soon as a current appears in the receiver and, consequently, the target is “caught”, it is possible to immediately determine both the azimuth and the elevation angle of the target from the position of the antenna (see Fig. 346). The values of these angles are simply read on the corresponding scales on the device.
Now let's see how the range to the target is determined using a radar station.
A conventional transmitter emits radio waves for a long time in a continuous stream. If the transmitter of the radar station worked in the same way, then the reflected waves would also arrive at the receiver continuously, and then it would be impossible to determine the range to the target. (396)
Remember, it was only with a jerky, and not with a lingering sound, that you were able to catch the echo and determine the distance to the object that reflected the sound waves.
Similarly, the transmitter of a radar station does not emit electromagnetic energy continuously, but in separate pulses, which are very short radio signals following at regular intervals.
Reflecting from the target, the radio beam, consisting of individual pulses, Creates a "radio echo", which allows you to determine the distance to the target in the same way as we determined it with the help of a sound echo. But don't forget that the speed of radio waves is almost a million times the speed of sound. It is clear that this introduces great difficulties in solving our problem, since we have to deal with very small time intervals, calculated in millionths of a second.
Imagine that an antenna sends a radio pulse to an airplane. Radio waves, reflected from the aircraft in different directions, partially fall into the receiving antenna and further into the radar receiver. Then the next pulse is emitted, and so on.
We need to determine the time that has passed from the beginning of the emission of the pulse to the reception of its reflection. Then we can solve our problem.
Radio waves are known to travel at a speed of 300,000 kilometers per second. Therefore, in one millionth of a second, or in one microsecond, the radio wave will travel 300 meters. To make it clear how small the time interval is, calculated by one microsecond, and how high the speed of radio waves, it is enough to give such an example. A car racing at a speed of 120 kilometers in tea manages to cover in one microsecond a path equal to only 1/30 of a millimeter, that is, the thickness of a sheet of the thinnest tissue paper!
Let us assume that 200 microseconds have passed from the beginning of the pulse emission to the reception of its reflection. Then the path traveled by the impulse to Delhi and back is 300 × 200 = 60,000 meters, and the distance to the target is 60,000: 2 = 30,000 meters, or 30 kilometers.
So, radio echo allows you to determine distances in essentially the same way as with a sound echo. Only the sound echo comes in seconds, and the radio echo comes in millionths of a second.
How are such short periods of time practically measured? Obviously, a stopwatch is not suitable for this purpose; here you need very special devices.
CATHODE-RAY TUBE
To measure extremely short periods of time, calculated in millionths of a second, a so-called cathode-ray tube made of glass is used in radar (Fig. 347). (397) The flat bottom of the tube, called the screen, is covered with a layer of a special composition from the inner ron, which can glow from the impact of electrons. These electrons - tiny particles charged with negative electricity - fly out of a piece of metal in the neck of the tube when it is in a heated state.
In the tube, in addition, there are positively charged cylinders with holes. They attract electrons flying out of the heated metal and thereby tell them to move quickly. The electrons fly through the holes of the cylinders and form an electron beam that hits the bottom of the tube. The electrons themselves are invisible, but they leave a luminous trace on the screen - a small luminous dot (Fig. 348, A).
Look at fig. 347. Inside the tube you see four more metal plates arranged in pairs - vertically and horizontally. These plates serve to control the electron beam, that is, to make it deviate to the right and left, up and down. As you will see below, negligible time intervals can be counted from the deviations of the electron beam.
Imagine that the vertical plates are charged with electricity, and the left plate (when viewed from the side of the screen) contains a positive charge, and the right one - a negative one. In this case, electrons, as negative electrical particles, when passing between vertical plates, are attracted by a plate with a positive charge and repelled by a plate with a negative charge. As a result, the electron beam deviates to the left, and we see a luminous dot on the left side of the screen (see Fig. 348, B). It is also clear that if the left vertical plate is negatively charged and the right one is positively charged, then the luminous dot on the screen is on the right (see Fig. 348, AT). {398}
And what happens if we gradually weaken or strengthen the charges on the vertical plates and, in addition, change the signs of the charges? Thus, you can force the luminous dot to take any position on the screen - from the extreme left to the extreme right.
Let us assume that the vertical plates are charged to the limit and the luminous dot occupies the extreme left position on the screen. We will gradually weaken the charges, and we will see that the luminous dot will begin to move towards the center of the screen. She will take this position when the charges on the plates disappear. If then we charge the plates again, changing the signs of the charges, and at the same time we gradually increase the charges, then the luminous point will move from the center to its extreme right position.
>Thus, by regulating the weakening and strengthening of the charges and changing the signs of the charges at the right moment, it is possible to make the luminous point run from the extreme left position to the extreme right, that is, along the same path, at least 1000 times in one second. Directly at such a speed of movement, a luminous dot leaves a continuously luminous trace on the screen (see Fig. 348, G), just as a smoldering match leaves a mark if it is quickly moved in front of you to the right and left.
The trace left on the screen by a luminous dot is a bright luminous line.
Assume that the length of the luminous line is 10 centimeters and that the luminous dot travels this distance exactly 1000 times in one second. In other words, we will assume that a luminous point runs a distance of 10 centimeters in 1/1000 of a second. Therefore, (399) 
it will run a distance of 1 centimeter in 1/10,000 seconds, or 100 microseconds (100/1,000,000 seconds). If a centimeter scale is placed under a luminous line 10 centimeters long and its divisions are marked in microseconds, as shown in Fig. 349, then we get a kind of “clock”, on which a moving luminous point marks very small intervals of time.
But how can you tell time by this clock? How do you know when the reflected wave arrives? For this, it turns out that horizontal plates are needed, located in front of the vertical ones (see Fig. 347).
We have already said that when the receiver perceives a radio echo, a short-term current appears in it. With the appearance of this current, the upper horizontal plate is immediately charged with positive electricity, and the lower one with negative. Due to this, the electron beam is deflected upward (toward the positively charged plate), and the luminous point makes a zigzag ledge - this is the signal of the reflected wave (Fig. 350).
It should be noted that radio pulses are sent into space by the transmitter just at those moments when the luminous point is against zero on the screen. As a result, each time a radio echo enters the receiver, the reflected wave signal is received at the same place, that is, against the figure that corresponds to the time of passage of the reflected wave. And since the radio pulses follow one after another very quickly, the protrusion on the scale of the screen appears to our eye as continuously luminous, and it is easy to take the necessary reading from the scale. Strictly speaking, the ledge on the scale moves as the target moves in space, but due to the smallness of the scale, this movement is over (400) 
a short period of time is absolutely insignificant. It is clear that the farther the target is from the radar station, the later the radio echo arrives, and, consequently, the further to the right on the luminous line the signal zigzag is located.
In order not to make calculations related to determining the distance to the target, a range scale is usually applied to the screen of a cathode ray tube.
It is very easy to calculate this scale. We already know that a radio wave travels 300 meters in one microsecond. Therefore, in 100 microseconds it will travel 30,000 meters, or 30 kilometers. And since the radio wave travels twice the distance during this time (to the target and back), the division of the scale with a mark of 100 microseconds corresponds to a range of 15 kilometers, and with a mark of 200 microseconds - 30 kilometers, etc. (Fig. 351). Thus, an observer standing at the screen can directly read the distance to the detected target on such a scale.
So, the radar station gives all three coordinates of the target: azimuth, elevation and range. This is the data that anti-aircraft gunners need to fire with the help of POISOT.
At a distance of 100–150 kilometers, a radar station can detect such a small dot as an airplane seems to be flying at an altitude of 5–8 kilometers above the ground. Track the path of the target, measure the speed of its flight, count the number of flying aircraft - all this can be done by a radar station.
In the Great Patriotic war The anti-aircraft artillery of the Soviet Army played a big role in ensuring victory over the Nazi invaders. Interacting with fighter aircraft, our anti-aircraft artillery shot down thousands of enemy aircraft.
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Director of the Central Research Institute Burevestnik, part of the Uralvagonzavod concern, Georgy Zakamennykh said at the KADEX-2016 arms exhibition taking place in Kazakhstan that by 2017 a prototype of the Deriviatsia-PVO self-propelled anti-aircraft artillery system would be ready. The complex will be used in military air defense.
Visiting the international exhibition of armored vehicles Russia Arms Expo-2015 in Nizhny Tagil in 2015, this statement may seem strange. Because even then a complex with exactly the same name was demonstrated - “Derivation-Air Defense”. It was built on the basis of the BMP-3, produced at the Kurgan Machine-Building Plant. And the uninhabited tower was equipped with exactly the same 57 mm caliber gun.
However, it was a prototype created as part of the Derivation R&D. The main developer, Central Research Institute "Burevestnik", apparently did not like the chassis. And in the prototype, which will go to state tests, there will be a chassis created at Uralvagonzavod. Its type is not reported, but with a high degree of certainty it can be assumed that it will be "Armata".
ROC "Derivation" is an extremely relevant work. According to the developers, the complex will have no equal in the world in terms of its characteristics, which we will comment on below. 10 enterprises are involved in the creation of ZAK-57 "Derivation-Air Defense". The main work, as was said, is performed by the Central Research Institute "Petrel". It creates an uninhabited combat module. An extremely important role is played by KB Tochmash im. A.E. Nudelman, who developed a guided artillery projectile for a 57-mm anti-aircraft gun with a high probability of hitting a target approaching the performance of anti-aircraft missiles. The probability of hitting a small target with sound speed with two projectiles reaches 0.8.
Strictly speaking, the competence of "Dereviatsia-Air Defense" goes beyond the anti-aircraft artillery or anti-aircraft gun complex. The 57-mm gun can be used when firing at ground targets, including armored ones, as well as at enemy manpower. Moreover, despite the extreme taciturnity of the developers, caused by the interests of secrecy, there is information about the use of the complex in the weapon system launchers anti-tank missiles "Kornet". And if you add here a coaxial machine gun of 12.7 mm caliber, then you get a universal machine capable of hitting both air targets, covering troops from the air, and participating in ground operations as a support weapon.
As for solving air defense tasks, the ZAK-57 is capable of operating in the near zone with all types of air targets, including drones, cruise missiles, percussion elements of multiple launch rocket systems.
At first glance, anti-aircraft artillery is yesterday's air defense. More effective is the use of air defense systems, in extreme cases, the joint use of missile and artillery components in one complex. It is no coincidence that in the West, the development of self-propelled anti-aircraft guns (ZSU), armed with automatic guns, was stopped in the 80s. However, the developers of the ZAK-57 Derivation-Air Defense managed to significantly increase the effectiveness of artillery fire at air targets. And, given that the costs of production and operation of self-propelled anti-aircraft guns are significantly lower than those of air defense systems and air defense systems, it must be admitted that the Burevestnik Central Research Institute and Tochmash Design Bureau have developed a highly relevant weapon.
The novelty of the ZAK-57 is the use of a gun of a significantly larger caliber than was practiced in similar complexes, where the caliber did not exceed 32 mm. Smaller caliber systems do not provide the required firing range and are ineffective when firing at modern armored targets. But the main advantage of choosing the "wrong" caliber is that thanks to this, it was possible to create a shot with a guided projectile.
This task was not an easy one. It was much more difficult to create such a projectile for the 57-mm caliber than to develop such ammunition for the Koalitsiya-SV self-propelled guns, which has a 152-mm caliber gun.
A guided artillery projectile (UAS) was created at Tochmash Design Bureau under the improved Burevestnik artillery system based on the S-60 gun, created back in the mid-40s.
The UAS glider is made according to the "duck" aerodynamic scheme. The loading and firing scheme is similar to regular ammunition. The plumage of the projectile consists of 4 wings laid in a sleeve, which are deflected by a steering gear located in the bow of the projectile. It works from the incoming air flow. The photodetector of the laser radiation of the targeting system is located in the end part and is closed by a pallet, which is separated in flight.
The mass of the warhead is 2 kilograms, the explosive is 400 grams, which corresponds to the mass of explosives of a regular artillery projectile of 76 mm caliber. Especially for the ZAK-57 Derivation-Air Defense, a multifunctional projectile with a remote fuse is also being developed, the features of which are not disclosed. Regular shells of 57 mm caliber will also be used - fragmentation tracer and armor-piercing.
UAS is fired from a rifled barrel in the direction of the target or to the calculated pre-empted point. Guidance is carried out on a laser beam. The firing range is from 200 m to 6-8 km for manned targets and up to 3-5 km for unmanned ones.
To detect, track the target and aim the projectile, a telethermal imaging control system with automatic capture and tracking is used, equipped with a laser rangefinder and a laser guidance channel. The optoelectronic control system ensures the use of the complex at any time of the day in any weather. There is the possibility of shooting not only from a place, but also on the move.
The gun has a high rate of fire, firing up to 120 rounds per minute. The process of repelling air attacks is fully automatic - from finding a target to selecting the necessary ammunition and firing. Air targets with a flight speed of up to 350 m / s are hit in a circular zone horizontally. The range of vertical firing angles is from minus 5 degrees to 75 degrees. The flight altitude of the downed objects reaches 4.5 kilometers. Lightly armored ground targets are destroyed at a distance of up to 3 kilometers.
The advantages of the complex should also include its low weight - a little over 20 tons. That contributes to high maneuverability, cross-country ability, speed and buoyancy.
In the absence of competitors
Claim that "Derivation-Air Defense" in Russian army will not replace any similar weapon. Because the closest analogue is anti-aircraft self-propelled unit on the tracked chassis "Shilka" is hopelessly outdated. It was created in 1964 and for ten three years it was quite relevant, firing 3400 rounds per minute from four 23 mm caliber barrels. But low and close. And the accuracy left much to be desired. Even the introduction of radar into the sighting system in one of the latest modifications did not greatly affect the accuracy.
For more than a decade as an air defense short range they use either an air defense system or an air defense system, where anti-aircraft missiles back up the gun. We have Tunguska and Pantsir-S1 among such mixed complexes. The Derivation cannon is more effective than the smaller caliber quick-firing guns of both systems. However, it even slightly exceeds the performance of the Tunguska missiles, which were put into service in 1982. The rocket of the completely new Pantsir-S1, of course, is beyond competition.
anti-aircraft missile system"Tunguska" (Photo: Vladimir Sindeev / TASS)
As for the situation on the other side of the border, if “clean” self-propelled anti-aircraft guns are operated somewhere, they were created mainly during the period of the first flights into space. These include the American ZSU M163 "Volcano", put into service in 1969. In the United States, the Vulkan has already been decommissioned, but it continues to be used in the armies of a number of countries, including Israel.
In the mid-80s, the Americans decided to replace the M163 with a new, more efficient ZSU M247 Sergeant York. If it had been put into service, the designers of the Vulcan would have been put to shame. However, the manufacturers of the M247 turned out to be disgraced, since the experience of operating the first fifty installations revealed such monstrous design flaws that Sergeant York was immediately retired.
Another ZSU continues to be operated in the army of the country of its creation - in Germany. This is the "Cheetah" - created on the basis of the "Leopard" tank, and therefore has a very solid weight - more than 40 tons. Instead of twin, quadruple, etc. anti-aircraft guns, which is traditional for this type of weapon, it has two independent guns on both sides of the gun turret. Accordingly, two fire control systems are used. "Gepard" is capable of hitting heavily armored vehicles, for which 20 sub-caliber projectiles are included in the ammunition load. Here, perhaps, is the entire review of foreign analogues.
ZSU "Gepard" (Photo: wikimedia)
Moreover, it must be added that against the background of Derivation-Air Defense, a number of quite modern ZPRKs in service look pale. That is, their anti-aircraft missiles do not reach the UAS, created in Tochmash Design Bureau, in terms of capabilities. These, for example, include the American LAV-AD complex, which has been in service with the US Army since 1996. He is armed with eight Stingers, and a 25-mm cannon, firing at a distance of 2.5 km, he inherited from the Blazer complex of the 80s.
In conclusion, it is necessary to answer the question that skeptics are ready to ask: why create a kind of weapon if everyone in the world has abandoned it? Yes, because in terms of efficiency, the ZAK-57 differs little from the air defense system, and at the same time its production and operation are much cheaper. In addition, the ammunition load of shells includes significantly more than missiles.
TTX "Derivation-Air Defense", "Shilka", M163 "Volcano", M247 "Sergeant York", "Cheetah"
Caliber, mm: 57 - 23 - 20 - 40 - 35
Number of barrels: 1 - 4 - 6 - 2 - 2
Firing range, km: 6 ... 8 - 2.5 - 1.5 - 4 - 4
Maximum height of hit targets, km: 4.5 - 1.5 - 1.2 - n / a - 3
Rate of fire, rds / min: 120 - 3400 - 3000 - n / a - 2 × 550
The number of shells in the ammunition load: n / a - 2000 - 2100 - 580 - 700
