Student's answer (28.01.2011)

The concept of "political participation" characterizes all the actions of citizens (individual and on a group basis) seeking to influence the content of political decisions of government bodies on a national scale or at the local level. Specific manifestations of political participation are: election campaigning, participation in elections of government bodies, lobbying activities, organizational work in a political party, participation in a demonstration, in a rally, support of a party or any candidate with funds, publication of articles in a newspaper with the aim of influencing the political situation, etc. Forms of political participation differ: 1) in their scale: it can be both participation in solving global issues of a national scale, and intervention in solving frequent local issues; 2) according to the degree of intensity. The extreme poles here are alienation from politics, complete apathy and the activity of professional politicians. The need and degree of involvement of citizens in politics depends on the specific situation, the political system and the person himself. The level of political participation is affected by such personal factors as education, socio-economic status, age, gender, place of residence, profession, access to political information, etc. It would be unrealistic to demand equal political participation from all citizens. But it should be noted that long-term alienation from politics leads to the loss of the individual's skills to conduct discussions, search for a compromise, which in turn creates a predisposition to extremism. The reasons for political apathy may be a low level of personality development, an individual's disappointment in his own ability to influence the course of the political process, lack of interest in politics, etc.; 3. on the motivation of political action: autonomous and mobilized forms of political participation. With autonomous political participation, the individual acts independently, based on his own motives. Mobilized participation implies someone's leadership, pressure. Of particular importance for the political system is such a usually autonomous form as political participation, expressing political protest. Political protest is a negative reaction of an individual or group to the political situation in society or specific actions of the authorities; 4) in relation to the laws in force in the state, conventional ones are distinguished, i.e. legal, legal and non-conventional (illegal) forms of political participation. At present, such a form of non-conventional participation as terrorism poses a great threat; 5) according to the degree of awareness: rational and irrational. An example of irrational participation is vandalism, the violence of an emotionally excited crowd expressing its dissatisfaction with the actions of the authorities. The most optimal form of political participation of the majority of the population is elections to representative bodies of power. 2. Elections and electoral systems Elections in political life are a way of forming government bodies by expressing the will of citizens in accordance with the law. Elections are associated with voting, but voting can also be held without elections, for example, in referendums. In the conditions of modern representative democracy, the role of elections is especially great, they are the main form of manifestation of the sovereignty of the people. In direct democracy, when all citizens take part in decision-making and management, which was, for example, in the ancient Athenian Republic, their role is much lower. The following functions of elections are distinguished: - articulation, aggregation and representation of the interests of various groups of the population; - control over the institutions of power (unpleasant authorities are subject to change); - integration of diverse opinions and the formation of a common political will; – legitimization and stabilization of the political system; - expanding the flow of information between the population and the authorities; - transfer of possible conflicts into the mainstream of an orderly peaceful settlement; – political socialization of the population, intensification of its political participation; – recruitment of the political elite; – promoting the renewal of society through the competitive struggle of alternative political programs, etc. Elections perform these functions if they are based on certain principles. These include the principles of suffrage and the principles of the organization of elections. The principles of suffrage are: - universality (all citizens take part in elections); - equality (each voter has only one vote); - secrecy of elections (the decision of a particular voter should not be known to anyone). Principles of organization of the electoral process: - freedom of elections, in other words, the absence of any pressure on voters, candidates and organizers of elections; this principle is often violated; – availability of alternative candidates; - Competitiveness, competitiveness; – periodicity and regularity; - equal opportunities for political parties and candidates. The main regulator of the electoral process is the electoral system, which determines both the general principles for organizing elections and the methods for transferring voters' votes to mandates and positions of power. There are two main types of electoral (electoral) systems: majoritarian (alternative) and proportional (representative). Under a majoritarian system, in order to be elected, a candidate or party must receive a majority of the votes of the voters of the district or the whole country, while those who have collected a minority of votes do not receive any mandates. Depending on what majority is required, majoritarian electoral systems are divided into: a) absolute majority systems, when the winner must receive more than half of the votes (at least 50% plus one vote); b) systems of the relative majority, where for victory it is enough just to get ahead of rivals. At the same time, it is important that the winner received more votes than the number of voters who voted “against all”. In this case, the elections are declared invalid. When applying the absolute majority principle, if none of the candidates received more than half of the votes, a second round of elections is held. The majority system of absolute majority is used in Russia when choosing a president. Thus, 64.39% of voters took part in the presidential elections of the Russian Federation on March 14, 2004, that is, more than half - otherwise the elections would have been considered invalid. Already in the first round, V. Putin received 71.31% of the votes, that is, clearly more than half (the rest of the candidates for the post of President of the Russian Federation received the following voting results: N. Kharitonov - 13.69%, S. Glazyev - 4.1 %, I. Khakamada - 3.84%, O. Malyshkin - 2.02%, S. Mironov - 0.75% 3.45% of voters who took part in the elections voted against all candidates. in the Belgorod region, the majority system of absolute majority was used in the election of the governor, head of administration.E. Savchenko, the current governor of the Belgorod region, voted on May 25, 2003. 61.15% of those participating in the vote. His main opponent, the representative of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation V.P. Altukhov received about 22%. 66.54% of the total number of voters participated in the elections. All this made it possible for E. S. Savchenko to be elected in the first round. The majority system of relative majority is used in the election of some deputies to the State Duma, deputies to regional legislatures. Under the proportional system, the distribution of mandates takes place in proportion to the votes received by parties or electoral blocs. Both systems have both advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage of the majority system is that it takes into account the opinion of the majority of voters. Majoritarian elections predetermine the dominance of several large parties, which ensures the stability of the political system. Its disadvantage is the continuation of its merits. This system does not fully take into account the opinion of the population. So, in essence, the opinion of 49% of voters may not be taken into account when forming the authorities. The proportional system makes it possible to more accurately take into account the opinion of voters, it stimulates a multi-party system. The main drawback of this system is that under conditions of a multi-party system, the stability of the political system decreases, and sometimes it is difficult to form a government. A mixed system is often used, combining elements of the majority and proportional systems. Thus, in Russia, one half of the deputies to the State Duma were elected according to the majoritarian system of relative majority, the other half - according to the proportional one. In the next upcoming elections to the State Duma of the Russian Federation, a proportional system will be used to select all 450 deputies. To overcome possible excessive fragmentation of elected bodies when using a proportional system, a certain percentage threshold is introduced: a party must gain a certain percentage of the vote in order to be represented in an elected legislature. In different countries - this percentage barrier is different. In Russia, in the elections to the State Duma, it amounted to 5% in the last elections, in the next elections it will rise to 7%. In Ukraine it is 4%. There are countries where 3 and 2 percent of the votes are legally fixed as a necessary minimum. In the elections to the Belgorod Regional Duma of some deputies (18 out of 35) under the proportional system, the specified barrier will be 5%. In order to overcome the percentage barrier, parties create electoral blocs. Examples of such blocs in the elections to the State Duma in 2003 were the bloc of the Party of the Revival of Russia (leader G. Seleznev) with the Party of Life (leader S. Mironov), the bloc of the Justice Party with the Party of Pensioners. Electoral blocs may also include representatives of various public organizations . It should be noted that in accordance with the planned new procedure for elections to the State Duma of the Russian Federation, electoral blocs are excluded. Each party must perform independently. This new electoral law is expected to promote party consolidation. In the elections to the State Duma of the Russian Federation in December 2003, only three parties and one electoral association overcame the 5% threshold: United Russia - 37.57% (in the Belgorod region 33.54% voted for it), the Communist Party of the Russian Federation - 12.61% ( in the Belgorod region - 15.64%), the Liberal Democratic Party - 11.45% (in the Belgorod region - 11.54%), the Rodina electoral bloc - 9.02% (in the Belgorod region - 9.99%). Two parties represented in the State Duma in 1999-2003 did not overcome the 5% barrier in the last elections: Yabloko - 4.3% (in the Belgorod region - 2.82%) and SPS - 3.97% (in Belgorod region - 1.64%). The Agrarian Party of Russia in the Belgorod region received the votes of 5.65% of those participating in the elections, but at the federal level it had 3.7%, which did not allow it to enter the State Duma. 4.7% of voters participating in the elections voted against all. 60.7 million voters took part in the elections, which is 55.75% of the voters included in the voting lists. Based on the results of the elections on the federal lists, United Russia receives 120 deputy mandates, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation - 40, the Liberal Democratic Party - 36, and the Motherland bloc - 29. G.G. Golikov, who received 65.28% of the votes (V.P. Altukhov came second with 18.24%). In the Novooskolsky district, A.V. was re-elected as a deputy of the State Duma. Skoch, who was trusted by 71.37% of voters (O.S. Kulishov had the second result - 12.63%). A mixed electoral system is also being introduced in Russia for the elections of regional legislative assemblies. The law establishes that at least half of the deputies of regional legislative assemblies must be elected from party lists. So, out of 35 deputies of the Belgorod Regional Duma, 18 deputies were elected according to party lists. This is done in order to stimulate party building at the regional level and to structure these legislative assemblies (formation of factions). If in the Regional Duma of the Belgorod Region of the II convocation there was only a faction of the Communist Party, and in the Duma of the III convocation, elected in 2001, only in January 2005 did United Russia and the Agrarian Party factions appear, then in the Duma of the IV convocation, elected in 2005 4 factions appeared at once. This is the faction of the party "United Russia" (it received 52.77% of the votes of the voters in the region in the voting on party lists), the faction of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, consisting of 4 deputies (18.47%), the LDPR faction (6.74% and 2 deputy seats) , a faction of the Motherland party (6.41% and 1 deputy seat). Parties play an important role in the formation of elected bodies of power. But to date, electoral victory more often provides access to funds mass media and not the number of party organizations. The struggle for power is shifting to the field of information technology. These days, no idea and program will have almost no meaning if it is not broadcast by the media. The importance of money in elections is also growing. The money is needed both for the election campaign and as a guarantee of the possibility of providing assistance to the residents of the region where a deputy or future head of the region is elected. A typical example of this is the election of Russian billionaire R. Abramovich as governor of Chukotka. The role of the so-called administrative resource, that is, the influence of the current authorities on the course of elections, is very great. These authorities can provide implicit support for some candidates (party) and oppose others. The main stages of the electoral process are: 1) nomination of candidates; 2) propaganda campaign; 3) voting; 4) summing up.

Answer of student Alexander from group Yu 56-10

Elections are a fundamental form of political participation in a democracy. Without elections, democracy is unthinkable, because elections determine the country's political leadership at the federal, state and communal levels. Elections are the most effective tool of political control: if the voters are dissatisfied with the policies of the ruling forces, they can vote for their removal and thereby cause a change of power. Elections are the fundamental means of forming the bodies of the Russian Federation. Public authorities are formed in two ways: through elections and through appointment. However, appointments to the highest positions in the executive and judicial authorities are carried out by elected bodies. Thus, elections give the highest electoral legitimacy to the entire structure of public authorities. In the Russian state, at the federal level, one chamber of the Federal Assembly is directly elected - the State Duma and the head of state - the President of the Russian Federation. It is in them that the supreme power-forming will of the people is embodied and from them the main impetus is given to the formation of the entire executive and judicial power at the federal level. On an elective basis, state authorities are formed in the subjects of the Federation, as well as local governments. Hence the exceptional importance of elections at all levels. Elections, like a referendum, are a legalized form of direct popular will, the most important manifestation of democracy. Through elections, citizens have an impact on the formation of public authorities and thereby exercise their right to participate in the management of public affairs. A civil society based on the pluralism of people's opinions and interests is not able to ensure citizens' voluntary obedience to the law, to avoid sharp social explosions, and perhaps even bloody clashes, if state authorities are not formed on a fair electoral basis with the participation of the citizens themselves. Democratic elections are the opposite of civil war and the forceful solution of the issue of power. Elections directly reflect the political system and, in turn, influence it. All their organization and the procedure for determining the results of voting are closely connected with political parties. For example, there are differences between electoral systems and elections based on them in two-party and multi-party systems. Elections allow citizens to understand the true meaning of the programs of political parties fighting for power. Through them, and only through them, the will of the majority of the people is revealed, on the basis of which democratic power can be created. Elections are always associated with voting. However, despite the similarity of these concepts, there are significant differences between them. Elections are usually understood as a relatively regular, periodic process of electing the composition of government bodies enshrined in the constitution and other laws. Voting is not always associated with elections. It is also used in various forms of direct democracy: in referendums, polls, collective decision-making at meetings, etc. Elections and Democracy Elections, as an integral element of democracy, bear the imprint of its various forms and play an unequal role in its various models. The importance of elections in political systems based on direct forms of democracy, direct participation of citizens in the preparation and adoption of major state decisions is relatively low. In such cases, the powers of state leaders elected by citizens are severely limited, which reduces the political significance of the elections themselves. An example of this kind of state was the ancient Greek Republic of Athens during the periods of direct rule by the majority, the solution by the plebs in the squares of issues of the size of taxes, war and peace, the change of judges and military leaders, and so on. In the conditions of modern democracies, elections are the core mechanism, the main form of manifestation of the sovereignty of the people, their political role as a source of power. They also serve as the most important channel for representing the interests of various social groups in the authorities. General elections presuppose the right of every citizen to participate in them. For many people, and in some countries for the majority of citizens, they are the only form of their real participation in the politics of the respective organizations. Participation in political life is a direct indicator of a person's self-determination, the relevance and feasibility of his rights, an expression of a person's understanding of his social status and capabilities. It is the participation of an individual in politics that ultimately shows how this sphere of life is capable of serving not only the interests of large social groups, but also the needs and aspirations of an ordinary citizen, an ordinary person. The degree and nature of the inclusion of an individual in political life is directly determined by the reasons that are significant for him, the factors of participation. The latter are extremely diverse and are directly related to the roles that individuals play in political life. “Role”, according to G. Almond, is a kind (“part”) of political activity, indicating that an individual can be a voter, party activist, member of parliament, etc. And at the same time, each political role has its own functional load, which implies the corresponding opportunities and obligations (responsibility) of the individual to the state (party, society). Understanding the factors of political participation plays a fundamentally important role in interpreting its nature and the role of the individual in politics. In the most general terms, the factors of political participation are traditionally considered through its two global mechanisms: coercion, which focuses on the action of forces external to the individual, including the reasonableness of power and the limitations of the individual's properties necessary for independent participation in politics (T. Hobbes) , as well as interest, which, on the contrary, focuses on the internal structures of the individual's action and the complex structure of the personality (A. Smith, G. Spencer). So, in the XIX century. the main attention was paid to transpersonal, objective factors, for example, the presence of institutions, certain socio-economic conditions of people's lives, the spiritual atmosphere of society and other similar indicators that were supposed to give an exhaustive answer to the question of what makes a person get involved in relations with the public power. In its extreme forms, this social determination dissolved the individual in social relations, made him a faceless executor of the will of the class, nation, state. In the current century, along with the recognition of a certain significance of social norms and institutions, the main emphasis is placed mainly on subjective factors, on the characteristics of individual views, the psychological state of specific individuals, and finally, on the cultural traditions and customs of the population. There was even a paradigm of “autonomous man” (A. Gorz, O. Debarle), based on the recognition of the discrepancy between public norms and institutions and the motivations of a particular individual, which allegedly causes the fundamental inability of science to adequately reveal the true reasons for the political participation of an individual. Such hyperbolization of the individual principle turns politics into a set of sporadic, random actions of the individual. In modern political thought, it is customary to distinguish between prerequisites (conditions) and factors (immediate causes that determine the actions of an individual) of political participation. The former include material, political, legal, socio-cultural and information relations and structures that create the widest environment for various manifestations of individual activity. Within the boundaries of this environment, those main reasons are formed, which include macro- (the ability of the state to coerce, welfare, gender, age, occupation) and micro-factors (cultural and educational level of a person, his religious affiliation, psychological type, etc.). ) political participation. Each factor is capable of exerting a decisive influence on certain forms of political participation of people, depending on the temporal and spatial conditions of their life. But the greatest importance in science is given to the psychological states of the individual, for example, the feeling of a threat to one's social position (G. Lasswell); rational awareness of one's interests and gaining a new status (A. Lane); the desire for success in life and public recognition (A. Downes); understanding of public duty and realization of one's own rights, fear for self-preservation in the social system, etc. In a combination of various factors and prerequisites, certain dependencies have been identified. For example, data from diverse and long-term sociological observations show that the richer a society, the more it is open to democracy and contributes to a wider and more active political participation of citizens. More educated citizens are more likely than others to participate in political life, they have a stronger sense of perception of the effectiveness of their participation, and the more such people have access to information, the more likely they are to be politically active (V. Kay). At the same time, an analysis of political processes in democratic countries also revealed that non-participation is an indicator not only of the passivity or conviction of citizens that their vote will not change anything, but also of people's respect and trust in their representatives. Thus, in many democratic countries of the West, wide opportunities for public control over the ruling circles, the tradition of public criticism of the actions of the authorities in the media, and the selection of professionally trained persons for leadership and management reduce the degree of everyday involvement of citizens in the political process. In other words, in conditions of high security of their political and civil rights, people have a very rational attitude to the forms of participation in politics, trusting the ruling circles to carry out daily functions of governing the state and society and reserving the right to control and evaluate their activities in elections and referendums. At the same time, the political practice of the XX century. gave many examples of the "personality crisis in politics", expressed in the spread of violence and terror, or such phenomena as corruption, disobedience of citizens to the law, etc. Many scholars associate the widespread and reproduction of such forms of political participation with the crisis of basic democratic values, the growing intensity of life in major cities, inflexibility political forms for the self-expression of an increasingly complex personality, the growing alienation of the individual, the crisis of the former forms of his contract with the state, etc.

Student's answer (26.03.2013)

Elections are a way of forming public authorities or empowering an official through voting of authorized persons, provided that two or more candidates can apply for each seat in a public authority (position). Let's not forget that in addition to elections in society, there are other ways of forming government bodies: the forcible seizure of power (revolution, coup); inheritance of power (under a monarchical form of government); appointment to a senior management position. Elections are a peaceful way to resolve the conflict that constantly exists in a society where different groups claim leadership. The main idea of ​​the elections is to most fully and reliably reflect the will of the people, to ensure the manifestation of people's sovereignty. Elections in a democratic society are distinguished by the following features: 1. Universal suffrage. This principle means that all citizens who have reached the age of socio-political capacity, regardless of their gender, race, nationality, social status, religious and political beliefs, have the right to elect (active suffrage) and be elected (passive suffrage) to government bodies. . The age of socio-political capacity is determined by law. In most states, citizens get voting rights from the age of 18. This is a kind of limitation of the principle of universal suffrage - qualification. There are other qualifications as well. The age limit for the right to be elected to government bodies is often over 18 years old. Thus, a citizen not younger than 35 years old can become the President of the Russian Federation. Property qualification - possession of property or income of a certain value. Quite often a candidate is required to pay a property deposit in order to be registered. Settlement requirement - only one who has lived in a given area (country) for at least the period established by law can become a voter or candidate. Citizenship qualification assumes that only citizens of this state can elect and be elected to state bodies of power. The principle of universal suffrage was asserted as the processes of democratization softened qualification restrictions. In France, in 1848, for the first time in history, men received universal suffrage. In 1893 in New Zealand and in 1906 in Finland women were given the right to vote for the first time. 2. Alternative choice, which implies the presence of two or more contenders for power and competition between them. It makes no sense to hold elections from one candidate, however, even with the apparent alternativeness of the elections, this condition may not be met. For example, one candidate really claims power, and the rest are invited by him to create a democratic entourage. 3. Equal rights of voters, which implies an equal number of votes for all voters and that the same number of voters elect the same number of deputies. The principle of electoral equality was not always respected. For example, the first State Duma of the Russian Empire was formed according to the class principle. The same number of deputies were elected from estates with different number of voters. Some states allow deviations from the principle of electoral equality in order to guarantee the representation of sections of society that otherwise would not be able to get seats in representative bodies at all. For example, in Bangladesh, 30 out of 330 parliamentary seats are reserved for women. 4. Equal rights of candidates. All candidates must have the same opportunity for nomination, campaigning, access to the media. 5. Compliance with the law during elections at all stages. 6. Freedom of participation in elections and free expression of the will of voters. Democratic elections are characterized by the fact that no one knows for whom a particular voter is voting. Secrecy of voting is necessary in order to avoid possible persecution of voters by state bodies and public associations for political reasons. Moreover, a citizen has the right not to go to the polls - thus he expresses his attitude to political processes. Absenteeism (failure of voters to vote) has become a fairly common occurrence. However, this negatively affects political life, because the elections, which were attended by a minority of voters, do not reflect the real political picture. It is not the party whose program is supported by the majority of society that can win, but the one that has managed, through party discipline, to ensure the turnout of its few supporters in the elections. Absenteeism has another negative aspect - with low voter turnout, elections can be declared invalid (for example, in the Russian Federation, the established mandatory minimum for voter participation in voting is 25% in parliamentary elections and 50% in presidential elections). In this case, new elections are called, which significantly increases the cost of organizing the electoral process. To combat absenteeism, some countries introduced the institution of mandatory participation in elections. In the political system of society, elections perform a number of significant socio-political functions. Among them, political scientists traditionally distinguish the following. Firstly, elections are such a political institution that allows individual citizens and social groups to formulate their demands that meet their real or imaginary interests, and during the election campaign to provide support for the actions of those political leaders whose positions and views correspond to the needs of the majority of society. . In this sense, elections in a democratic state take the form of a special political market, where contenders for power roles exchange their programs, platforms, and promises for powers delegated by voters. Secondly, elections are one of the mechanisms for resolving political conflicts, since elections continue, as a rule, non-violent competition of various, and sometimes opposing interests, and society in the form of voters acts as a kind of judge resolving this conflict. In this capacity, elections in form and content are opposed to radical violent methods of political struggle. Thirdly, elections are a reliable means of legitimizing the political regime, as they contribute to the involvement, organization of the population in electoral associations, individual political parties and other socio-political organizations, act as a democratic basis for the recognition and support of elected leaders and government institutions, as how various channels of communication and interaction with voters are formed and operate. The functions of elections should also include the political socialization of the population, since the implementation of the electoral rights of citizens, the creation of election organizations, the widespread use of the media for agitation and propaganda, as well as party programs and platforms, to one degree or another, directly or indirectly contribute to both the political education of the broad masses and and create conditions for the active involvement of citizens and their associations in the political process. The organizational component of electoral systems is the electoral procedure - a set of rules established by the state that regulate the organization and conduct of elections. It is necessary to distinguish from the electoral procedure the election campaign, which is understood as the actions of the direct participants in the elections: the nomination of candidates, the development of election programs, campaigning, etc. Elections are a complex set public relations, which can be represented as stages of a single process alternating in time. The political struggle during this period of time is strictly regulated in order to prevent abuse by persons striving for power. There are the following stages of the electoral process: Setting the date of the elections. The date of the election is set by the authorized body (for example, the president, prime minister) in accordance with the legislation of the country. In some countries, the election date is explicitly stated in the Constitution or in law. Establishment of constituencies and polling stations. Creation of electoral bodies. For the organizational management of the electoral process, the following are usually created: a central electoral body, territorial (district) electoral bodies, precinct commissions Voter registration. Nomination of candidates, formation of party lists. At this stage, a circle of persons is determined from which the president, senators, and deputies will be elected. Nomination of a candidate is possible in several ways: - self-nomination; - nomination by groups of voters. Usually candidates are put forward by labor collectives, residents of some locality , territories. They hold a meeting where minutes are taken and signatures are taken in support of the candidate; - nomination by political parties and other public associations. A party registered in accordance with the law has the right to nominate its own candidates, and under a proportional electoral system, parties form lists of candidates from their party. Campaign. It involves the work of candidates (parties) and groups actively supporting them to persuade voters to vote for that candidate or party list. The mass media are used to convince voters, meetings with voters are held, leaflets, posters, banners are posted, various actions are held (mass shows, distribution of party symbols, etc.). All this requires significant funds, which are provided by voluntary donors, parties and even the state. Vote. Technically, voting is carried out in various ways, for example: by a show of hands (in small settlements, during elections of local governments); on paper ballot papers (the most common way), when a sign is placed opposite the name of the candidate to be elected; using electronic machines. In most countries, the voter votes directly for the candidate (direct election). In some countries, (for example, in the US presidential elections), the citizens first elect electors, who then cast their votes for the candidate for whom they are instructed to vote by the citizens (indirect elections). Counting of votes and establishment of voting results. Final determination and publication of election results. There are two main types of electoral systems: majoritarian and proportional. The majoritarian system is based on the principle of majority (the candidate who receives the most votes is considered the winner in the elections). Constituencies here are single-member, i.e. One deputy is elected from each constituency. The majority system has its own varieties. Under the majority system of relative majority, the candidate who received more votes than any of his rivals is considered elected. The system is simple, because it ensures the victory of one party even with a minimal advantage. But it may turn out that a minority of the population of the country will vote for the winning party (other parties will take the rest of the votes) and the government that this party will form will not enjoy the support of the majority of citizens. The absolute majority system assumes that the elected candidate is the one who received more than half of the votes of the voters who participated in the voting (50% plus one vote). In the event that none of the candidates received more than 50% of the votes, a second round of elections is held, in which, as a rule, two candidates who have achieved the best results participate. In the second round, it is sufficient to obtain a relative majority of votes. In our country, such a system is used when choosing the president of Russia. Let's single out the positive aspects of the majoritarian system: - direct connection between the voters and the candidate for deputies; - sifts out parties that are small in terms of their influence; - contributes to the establishment of a two- or three-party system; - contributes to the formation of a stable cabinet of ministers based on a parliamentary majority under a parliamentary form of government. The proportional system involves voting on party lists. The meaning of this system is that each party receives a number of seats in parliament proportional to the number of votes cast for it. Despite being democratic, this system has one drawback. It guarantees the representation of even small parties, which, under a parliamentary form of government, creates problems with the formation of a government. This becomes possible when none of the parties has an absolute majority in parliament, or cannot create it by entering into a coalition with other parties. Many countries are trying to smooth this shortcoming by introducing an "electoral threshold" - the smallest number of votes required to elect one deputy. For example, in Russia this threshold is 5%. the votes of the electorate. The positive aspect of this electoral system is that it allows the representation of large groups voters than under a single-seat majoritarian system; stimulates the creation of parties. But this system has weaknesses: - lack of close connection between the candidate for deputy and the voters; - the dependence of the deputy on the party faction in parliament; - gives rise to a large number of factions in parliament, which negatively affects the stability of the latter. There is no ideal electoral system. A number of countries are trying to find a compromise between the two electoral systems and use a mixed system that combines elements of proportional and majoritarian systems. For example, in elections to the State Duma of the Russian Federation, half of the deputies (225 people) are elected according to the majoritarian system of relative majority, and the other half - on the basis of the proportional representation system of political parties and in the federal electoral district.

One of the most important elements of modern political systems is the institution of general elections. Thanks to him, the political rights of citizens to the formation of representative power are realized - from local authorities to the president.

Elections are a way to change the ruling elites through the will of the population, an instrument of legitimation and stabilization of power. They make it possible to reveal the alignment of political forces in states, states, lands, etc., and determine the degree of public confidence in parties and their programs. During the electoral process, political socialization is especially actively carried out, political values ​​are assimilated, political skills and experience are acquired.

Finally, elections are a form of population control over the ruling elite. If the government does not express the interests of the voters, the elections provide an opportunity to change it, to hand over the reins of power to the opposition, which, as a rule, goes to the polls with criticism of the existing government. On the eve of elections, under pressure from voters, the government itself can adjust course in an effort to enlist the support of voters.

A society's readiness to hold elections is the most important sign of its democracy, its ability to solve pressing problems by peaceful political means.

Thus, elections are a kind of political market. Applicants offer their programs and promises to voters in exchange for power. As in any market, there is deceit and speculation on the trust of voters. Therefore, elections are effective in the presence of legislation on electoral systems and the existence of civil society as a set of non-state entities that implement the interests of citizens (parties, trade unions, voters' clubs, various associations, unions, centers, foundations, etc.).

The election procedure is regulated by the electoral law of each country. The legislation reflects the provisions on the procedure for nominating candidates, requirements for candidates, the procedure for voting and counting votes, the ability to use the services of the media and sources of funding.

Democratic elections are determined by a number of principles - a kind of universally recognized norms that have unconditional value, which make elections precisely democratic. These principles are provided by the right to vote - the right to vote.

In the constitutions of countries with parliamentary democracy, first of all, the very principle of the election of representative bodies and the inalienable right of the people to form them are fixed. The text of the constitution itself, as a rule, reveals the content of the principle of universality of elections. The principle of universality means that all citizens of a given state have the right to participate actively - as voters, and passively - as candidates for government bodies, participation in elections. This right is limited by a number of qualifications: the age qualification, the disability qualification, which excludes participation in elections, for example, mentally ill citizens. There are also moral qualifications that limit the rights or exclude from participation in elections persons held in places of deprivation of liberty by a court verdict.

An indispensable principle of modern democratic elections is equal suffrage. Its practical implementation lies in the fact that deputies are elected to parliament, each of whom represents the same number citizens, and each voter has the same share of participation in parliamentary elections. Compliance with this principle largely depends on the correct "cutting" of constituencies Pugachev V.P., Solovyov A.I. Introduction to Political Science: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2006. - P. 108 ..

The next principle is the immediacy of elections. The essence of this principle lies in the fact that voters directly (without intermediaries, delegates or representatives) elect members of parliament and other representatives of political authorities.

The most important principle of democratic elections is competitiveness, equal participation in elections of competing parties, movements, candidates representing various social groups of society.

Finally, a principle relating to the voting procedure is the secret ballot. This principle is ensured by various technical methods that reduce the likelihood of external influence on voters.

Any election is held within a period clearly defined by law. This period is called the election campaign. Each election campaign has its own calendar of pre-election events, taking into account the deadlines provided for by law. Thus, according to Russian legislation, the date of the election must be set no later than 72 days in advance, registration of candidates must be carried out 40 days in advance, and so on.

Depending on the time sequence and features of the tasks to be solved, the electoral process is divided into several stages, stages: 1) the preparatory stage, which characterizes the socio-political soil from which the elections “grow”, as well as organizational measures that make it possible to hold elections; 2) nomination of candidates, ending with their registration; 3) agitation and propaganda campaign; 4) voting and summing up the results of elections. Strictly speaking, only the last three stages directly characterize the electoral process itself.

The election campaign begins after the preparatory activities and the official appointment of the election date. The term itself applies to both the entire state and individual candidates or parties. In the first case, the election campaign is a set of organizational, political, outreach and campaigning activities to directly ensure the electoral process in the state, in the second case, a system of activities aimed at the success of a particular candidate or party.

The first step in an election campaign is the nomination of candidates and (or) parties (movements). There are various ways to nominate and register them: 1) collection of signatures in support of a candidate or party; 2) providing a registration fee or a cash deposit, as well as documents indicating that the candidate has some kind of support, such as a list of party activists or members of a support group; 3) automatic registration of candidates in the event that they occupy posts contested in the upcoming elections.

To conduct an election campaign, parties, individual candidates create election headquarters. Plans are developed for campaigning and propaganda events, meetings of the candidate with voters, representatives of the candidate (observers) are appointed to the election commissions. In the conditions of modern Russia, such headquarters are created by candidates representing power structures, the opposition is deprived of such an opportunity due to lack of material resources.

As a rule, in most countries, election campaigning stops one day before the opening of polling stations. This is done so that the voters themselves have the opportunity to independently think over and comprehensively make their choice - for whom and for what exactly to cast their vote.

The holding of elections is ensured by state structures: election commissions, executive authorities, courts, and the prosecutor's office. They ensure the compilation of voter lists, the design of polling stations, the printing of ballots, the organization of voting, the observance of the law, the tabulation of voting results, and the notification of voters about the results of elections.

The legislation provides for a certain monetary fund that a candidate can use to conduct an election campaign. This fund is created from the candidate's personal funds, contributions from the respective party or movement, sponsorship donations. For opposition candidates, this is the most difficult and complex issue. However, practice shows that practically all candidates create such funds on a larger or smaller scale. At the same time, it is provided that the candidate has no right to spend more money than it is prescribed by law, although this requirement is constantly violated, even during presidential elections.

Today, voting is carried out with the help of either special voting machines or ballots. The latter method of voting is much more widespread. The main place of voting is the polling stations.

Immediately after the end of the voting, the election commission or other special election body starts counting its results. There should be no break or delay between voting and counting of votes, as this can be used for various kinds of falsifications. In international practice, the most common violations of voting and counting rules are the production and accounting of extra ballots, direct attribution of votes to one of the deputies, the withdrawal of ballots cast for an objectionable candidate, etc.

Social science. Full course of preparation for the Unified State Examination Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna

4.12. Political participation

4.12. Political participation

Political participation - 1) actions through which ordinary members of any political system influence or try to influence the results of its activities ( J. Nagel); 2) “any activity carried out voluntarily by citizens with the aim of influencing decision-making at various levels of the political system; participation in politics is understood, first of all, as a conscious purposeful activity" ( M. Kaase); 3) the influence of citizens on the functioning of the political system, the formation of political institutions and the process of making political decisions.

Political participation refers to the actual political actions, and not the actions that can cause political consequences. Practical and purposeful forms of political participation are characterized by scale and intensity.

Theories of political participation

1. Rational Choice Theory: the main subject of political participation is a free individual striving for the maximum realization of his interests and effectively acting in the name of achieving his own goals. The interest of the individual is understood as the desire to ensure personal well-being, and the participation of an individual in politics is possible provided that the possible income from participation will exceed the costs. This principle is called "profit maximization".

2. Motivational theories of political participation: the most common motives for political participation include ideological (a person participates in political life, sharing and supporting the official ideology of society); normative (the individual's behavior is based on the recognition of the power of power, developed in the process of political socialization); role (associated with the social role, the social position of the individual in the existing political system; the lower the social position of the individual, the more likely it becomes to be radically opposed to the existing government).

3. Theories of social factors of political participation: the interrelation and influence on political participation of such factors as the level of socio-economic equality and the possibility of social mobility, stability and others are studied.

4. "Michigan model" of electoral participation(party identification of voters is formed through political socialization, the main agent of which is the family).

5. Psychological school: focuses on the motives and attitudes of the individual.

A kind of activity of subjects whose actions are motivated is political behavior- direct interaction of participants in political activity.

Levels and types of political participation:

* Reaction (positive or negative) to the impulses emanating from the political system, from its institutions or their representatives, not related to the need for high human activity; episodic participation in politics.

* Activities related to delegation of authority: participation in elections (local or state level), referendums, etc.

* Participation in the activities of political and related public organizations: parties, pressure groups, trade unions, youth political associations and others.

* Performing political functions within state institutions, including the media.

* Professional, leading political and ideological activities.

* Participation in non-institutional political movements and actions aimed at a radical restructuring of the existing political system.

Typology of political behavior

1) By subjects: individual; group; mass.

2) By meaningful action: conscious forms of political behavior based on value, rational and other similar motives; unconscious, where motivation is taken out of the control of consciousness, and motives are carried out by lower reflex levels of the psyche (affective actions that occur in the crowd as a reaction to non-standard situations).

3) By publicity of actions: open (for example, participation in elections, demonstrations, rallies); closed forms (absenteeism, political passivity).

4) By compliance of actions with the official (dominant) norms of the political system: normative (law-abiding, loyalty, conformism); deviant, deviating from prescriptions, including pathological forms political behavior (panic, hysteria, manic political prejudices).

5) C point of view of the continuity of political development: traditional, characteristic of a given society, regime, mentality; innovative, introducing new features in the relations of subjects of power among themselves and with institutions of power.

6) C point of view of the dominant nature of motivation: autonomous, in which actions are determined by the subjects themselves; mobilization, where actions are caused mainly by external reasons in relation to the subject of actions.

7) By manifestation methods: rebellion; protest; mass discontent.

8) By duration: long; short-term.

9) By directions: constructive and solidarity as manifestations of political participation; destructive; extremist;

10) By legality criterion: conventional (behavior using legal or generally accepted forms of expressing interests and influencing power: participation in elections, lobbying, financing of election campaigns, initiative movements, etc.) and non-conventional (illegal or contrary to generally accepted political norms behavior: protest, disobedience to state power ). Non-conventional behavior is divided into non-violent (rallies, protest marches, pickets) and violent types (covering a spectrum of actions from riots and damage to property to terrorism). Conscious refusal to obey the law (and in exceptional cases - refusal to pay taxes), holding unauthorized protests, stopping all business activity - all these actions are united under the name "civil disobedience" (the tactics of mass non-violent civil disobedience were justified M. Gandhi and M. L. King).

To political participation are: a) actions delegation of authority (electoral behavior); activism aimed at supporting candidates and parties in election campaigns; attending rallies and participating in demonstrations; participation in the activities of parties and interest groups; b) passive forms political behavior of citizens; participation of people only in the elections of representative bodies of power or only in solving local problems; professional actions of politicians.

For the political participation of citizens, objective conditions are important (the alignment of political forces, political culture society); subjective conditions (attitude towards the political system, motives for participation in politics, their values, needs, knowledge, awareness).

The factors influencing political behavior are: gender, age, religious affiliation, characteristics of primary socialization, education, marital status, socio-economic conditions, some general trends in the behavior of individual electoral groups, and others.

Political behavior - this is a set of reactions of social subjects (social, communities, groups, individuals, etc.) to the activities of the political system.

political protest - variety negative impact individual (group) on the political situation in society or specific actions of the authorities that affect him. Sources of political protest: weak adherence of citizens to the values ​​prevailing in society, psychological dissatisfaction with the current state of affairs, as well as the lack of due sensitivity of the authorities to the current needs of the population. In order to give the protest a civilized form, freedom of speech is ensured in democratic states, an opposition institution is formed, which is represented by the activities of non-governmental parties and movements. In a number of countries, the opposition even creates "shadow" governments that constantly oppose the ruling structures on all major political issues, publishing their own assessments and forecasts, plans and programs for solving various problems.

The most radical manifestation of political protest is political extremism, which expresses commitment in politics to extreme views and actions. Political extremism is always legal nihilism. Political extremism is a phenomenon of international scale, it contains a danger for the subjects of international relations, the policy of peaceful cooperation of states, in general for international security. Distinctive feature extremism in the political sphere of public relations is its ability to synthesize extremist manifestations occurring in other areas of society, to give them a political orientation.

Political participation is opposed to such a type of political behavior as absenteeism (avoidance of participation in political life - in voting, election campaigns, protests, activities of parties, interest groups, etc.; loss of interest in politics and political norms, political apathy). The absentee type of behavior exists in any society, but its growth, as well as the growth in the proportion of apathetic people, indicates a serious crisis in the legitimacy of the political system, its norms and values. Reasons for absenteeism: a) the dominance of the norms of the subculture in the personality with the almost complete displacement of the generally accepted norms of culture; b) a high degree of satisfaction of personal interests, which can lead to a loss of interest in politics; c) the ability of the individual to independently cope with their problems, privately defend their interests, gives rise to a feeling of the uselessness of politics; d) feelings of helplessness in the face of complex problems, distrust of political institutions, a feeling of inability to somehow influence the process of developing and making decisions; e) the collapse of group norms, the loss of a person's sense of belonging to any social group, and, consequently, the goals and values ​​of social life, the lack of ideas about the relationship between politics and private life. Absenteeism is more observed among young people, representatives of various subcultures, people with a low level of education.

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Elections are an essential component of modern politics. They are a way of forming the organs of power and administration by expressing the political will of citizens according to certain rules. As a result of elections, elected candidates are endowed with power. Elections are used in various democratic organizations: parties, trade unions, cooperatives, joint-stock companies.

Elections are always associated with voting, however, despite the closeness of these concepts, they also have significant differences. Elections are usually understood as a relatively regular, periodical process enshrined in the constitution and other laws, the selection of the composition of the state bodies. Voting is not always associated with elections. It is also used in various forms of democracy: in referendums, polls, collective decision-making at meetings.

Elections, as an integral element of democracy, bear the imprint of its various forms and play an unequal role in its various models. In political systems based on the principles of direct democracy, on the direct participation of citizens in making the most important state decisions, the role of elections is relatively small. In the conditions of modern democracies, elections are their core mechanism, the main form of manifestation of the sovereignty of the people, their political role as a source of power. They also serve as the most important channel for representing the interests of various social groups in the authorities.

Functions of Elections in a Democracy

The influence of elections on the life of modern societies is diverse and manifests itself in their most important functions. In the scientific literature, there are following features elections:

Representation of various interests of the population;

Control over the institutions of power;

Integration of diverse opinions and formation of a common political will by uniting the majority of citizens around a certain political platform and its leaders;

Legitimation and stabilization of the political system, as well as the legitimization of specific institutions of power: parliament, government, president;

Expansion of communications, relations of representation between government institutions and citizens;

Translation of political conflicts into the mainstream of their institutionalized peaceful settlement;

Political socialization of the population, development of its political consciousness and political participation;

Generation of programs for the renewal of society. Elections provide an opportunity for various political forces to present their own vision of social problems and put forward programs for their solution. This stimulates the search for optimal ways of development.

The above functions are performed by elections only in democratic political systems, in which the electoral process itself is democratic.

Electoral process

The main social purpose of democratic elections is to adequately reflect the opinion and will of citizens, to ensure the representation of the main social groups in government, and to form an effective government. Elections can correspond to their social purpose only if they are based on certain principles. First, these are the principles of suffrage, which determine the status, position of each citizen in elections; secondly, the general principles of organizing elections, characterizing the fundamental organizational, including social, conditions for their democracy. Together, these principles determine the nature of the electoral process. Thus, electoral process - it is an organization, a mechanism for holding elections based on the existing suffrage.

Democratic principles of suffrage include:

1. Universality- all citizens, regardless of gender, race, nationality, class or professional affiliation, language, income level, wealth, education, confession or political opinion, have an active (as a voter) and a passive (as a candidate) right to participate in elections . The age limit allows the participation in elections of citizens of the state only from a certain age, as a rule, upon reaching the age of majority. The residency requirement is also widespread, which puts forward a certain period of residence in a given area or country as a condition for admission to elections. For example, according to the US constitution, an American citizen by birth, at least 35 years of age and resident within the United States for at least 14 years, can become the president of the country.

In the United States, until after the Civil War, Americans of color did not participate in the electoral process, except for minor groups.

2. Equality- Each voter has only one vote. Equality of voting rights implies an approximate equality of constituencies, which is necessary so that the votes of voters have approximately the same weight in the election of a deputy, but in practice some deviations from this principle are allowed. Thus, according to the electoral law of Germany, constituencies may differ in population by one third.

3. Election Mystery- the decision of a particular voter should not be known to anyone. This principle applies only to passive suffrage. In practice, the secrecy of elections is ensured by a closed voting procedure, the presence of special voting booths, a standard form, the sameness of ballots, sealing of ballot boxes, severe punishment for violating electoral secrecy.

4. Direct (immediate) voting- the voter makes a decision directly about a specific candidate for an elective position, votes for a real person. There are no instances between voters and candidates that mediate their will and directly determine the personal composition of deputies.

In cases where citizens choose only electors or a special body that directly elects a candidate, indirect (indirect) elections take place. Such elections, due to the depersonalization, abstractness of the choice, extinguish the interest of citizens in voting and contribute to the development of absenteeism. They distort the will of the voters in favor of the big parties and blocs, as the votes won by outsider parties are lost at every level of elections. Indirect elections are rarely used these days. For example, presidential elections in the modern world are mainly carried out either in direct general elections or by the country's parliament.

This article discusses the issues of the content line "Politics".

The content line of the "Politics" section consists of the following elements: the concept of power; the state, its functions; political system; typology of political regimes; democracy, its main values ​​and features; civil society and the state; political elite; political parties and movements; mass media in the political system; election campaign in the Russian Federation; political process; political participation; political leadership; public authorities of the Russian Federation; federal structure of Russia.

According to the "Analytical report on the results of the USE 2010" the graduates faced difficulties with questions that test their knowledge of the functions of the state, the features of the political system, the signs and relationship of civil society and the rule of law.

The most difficult task for the examinees was the task that tested the knowledge of the topic “Media in the political system”. The results of the task on this topic were also influenced by the form of the task (a task for the analysis of two judgments). The topic “Election Campaign in the Russian Federation” has always been quite difficult for students. The topics “Political parties and movements”, “The concept of power”, “Political participation”, which gave high results at the basic and advanced levels of complexity, cause difficulties for the participants of the Unified State Examination at a high level of complexity.

Low results were obtained when performing complex tasks on the topic "Political Process". Lower results than last year were demonstrated when completing the task on the use of terms and concepts in a certain context (B6), and tasks of the B6 format, aimed at checking the topics "Political system", "State and its functions", gave an average percentage performance is less than 10%. The results of the unsuccessfully completed task B6 correlate with the performance of the task C5, which tests the same skill at a different level - to apply social science concepts in a given context.

It is concluded that the topics: "Media in the political system", "Election campaign in the Russian Federation", "Political process", "Political participation", "Political leadership" - require more careful consideration, which we will do in this article.

1. Topic: "Media in the political system"

Plan:
1. Media in the political system of society:
a) the concept of "mass media";
b) the functions of the media;
c) the role and influence of the media in various political regimes.
2. The nature of the information disseminated by the media.
3. The influence of the media on the voter:
a) ways of influencing the voter;
b) the role of political advertising;
c) methods of confronting the media.

The main provisions of the topic:
Mass media - a set of channels for disseminating information addressed to an unlimited circle of people, social groups, states, in order to promptly inform them about events and phenomena in the world, a particular country, a particular region, as well as to perform specific social functions.

Mass media functions: 1) informational; 2) selection and commenting on information, its evaluation; 3) political socialization (introducing people to political values, norms, patterns of behavior); 4) criticism and control of authorities; 5) representation of various public interests, opinions, views on politics; 6) formation of public opinion; 7) mobilization (inciting people to certain political actions).

The media can contribute to the development of democracy, the participation of citizens in political life, but can also be used for political manipulation.

Political manipulation is the process of influencing public opinion and political behavior, the covert management of the political consciousness and actions of people in order to direct them in the right direction for the authorities.
The purpose of manipulation is to introduce the necessary attitudes, stereotypes, goals, in order to induce the masses, contrary to their own interests, to agree to unpopular measures, to arouse their discontent.

2. Topic: "Election campaign in the Russian Federation"

Plan:
1. Electoral system:
a) the concept of "electoral system";
b) structural components of the electoral system;
c) the concept of "suffrage";
d) stages of the electoral process;
e) types of electoral systems.

2. Election campaign:
a) the concept of "election campaign";
b) stages of the election campaign.

3. Political technologies of the voter.

The main provisions of the topic:
The electoral system (in the broad sense) is the procedure for organizing and holding elections to representative institutions or an individual leading representative. The electoral system (in the narrow sense) is a way of distributing mandates among candidates depending on the results of the vote.

Suffrage is a sub-branch of constitutional law, which is an independent system of legal norms governing the right of citizens to elect and be elected to public authorities and local governments and the procedure for exercising this right.

Suffrage (in the narrow sense) is the political right of a citizen to elect (active right) and to be elected (passive right).

In Russia, citizens from the age of 18 have the right to vote; the right to be elected to a representative body - from the age of 21, the head of the administration of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation - upon reaching the age of 30, and the President of the country - from the age of 35. The President of Russia and the State Duma are elected for terms of 6 and 5 years, respectively. Based on the Constitution of Russia, the President cannot be elected for more than two consecutive terms.

Deputies of the State Duma are elected according to party lists. In the elections of the President of the Russian Federation, the majority system of an absolute majority is used.

Russian citizens participate in the formation of electoral bodies on the principles of 1) universal, 2) equal, 3) direct suffrage with 4) secret ballot.

Electoral process - a set of activities, procedures for the preparation and conduct of elections in order to form a representative body of power, carried out by election commissions and candidates (electoral associations) in the period from the date of official publication (publication) of the decision of an authorized official, state body, local government on calling (conducting) elections until the day the election commission organizing the elections submits a report on the expenditure of funds from the relevant budget allocated for the preparation and conduct of elections.

Stages of the electoral process:
1) preparatory (setting the date of elections, registration and registration of voters);
2) nomination and registration of candidates for deputies or pre-election positions;
3) election campaigning and financing of elections;
4) voting, establishment of voting results and determination of election results, their official publication.
Election campaign (French sampagne - campaign) - a system of campaigning events held by political parties and independent candidates in order to ensure the maximum support of voters in the upcoming elections.

Types of electoral systems:
1) majoritarian;
2) proportional;
3) majority-proportional (mixed).

Majority system (from French majorite - majority) - 1) the candidate (or list of candidates) who has received the majority of votes (absolute or relative) provided by law is considered elected; 2) when it is applied, the voting takes place “for” specific candidates in single-member or multi-member constituencies.

Types of majority system:
1) absolute majority system (the candidate who wins 50% + 1 one vote is considered the winner);
2) the system of relative majority (the winner is the candidate who received more votes than any of the other candidates);
3) a qualified majority system (i.e., a predetermined majority, usually 2/3, 3/4).

A proportional electoral system is one of the varieties of electoral systems used in elections to representative bodies. When elections are held under the proportional system, deputy mandates are distributed among the lists of candidates in proportion to the votes cast for the lists of candidates, if these candidates have overcome the percentage threshold.
The proportional electoral system combined with the majoritarian electoral system forms a mixed electoral system.

3. Topic: "Political process"

Plan:
1. Political process:
a) the concept of "political process";
b) stages of the political process.

2. Typology of the political process:
a) depending on the scope;
b) depending on temporal characteristics;
c) according to the degree of openness;
d) depending on the nature of social change.

3. Features of the political process in modern Russia.

The main provisions of the topic:
The political process - 1) is a chain of political events and states that change as a result of the interaction of specific policy subjects; 2) a set of actions of political subjects aimed at the implementation of their roles and functions within the political system, at the realization of their own interests and goals; 3) the total activity of all subjects of political relations associated with the formation, change, transformation and functioning of the political system.

Structure of the political process:
1) the subjects of the process, the active principle;
2) object, purpose of the process (solution of a political problem);
3) means, methods, resources.

The political process can be divided into four stages:
1) policy initiation (representation of interests, demands to power structures);
Initiation (from lat. injicio - I throw in, cause, excite) - stimulating the beginning of something.
Articulation (from lat. articulo - I dismember) interests and requirements - the mechanisms and ways by which citizens and their organized groups express their demands to the government.
Aggregation of interests is an activity in which the political demands of individuals are combined and reflected in the party programs of those political forces that are directly fighting for power in the country.
2) policy formation (political decision making);
3) implementation of policy, political decisions;
4) policy evaluation.

Classification of political processes:
1) by scope: foreign policy and domestic policy;
2) by duration: long-term (formation of states, transition from one political system to another) and short-term;
3) according to the degree of openness: open and hidden (shadow);
4) by the nature of social change: the electoral process, revolution and counter-revolution, reform, uprisings and rebellions, political campaign, direct action.

4. Topic: "Political Participation"

Plan:
1. The concept of "political participation".
2. Forms of political participation:
a) direct participation;
b) indirect participation;
c) autonomous participation;
d) mobilization participation.
3. Motives for the participation of the voter in the elections:
a) interest in politics;
b) political competence;
c) satisfaction of needs.
4. Political absenteeism.

The main provisions of the topic:
Political participation - the actions of a citizen in order to influence the adoption and implementation of government decisions, the choice of representatives in government institutions.

This concept characterizes the involvement of members of a given society in the political process. The essential basis of political participation is the inclusion of an individual in the system of power relations: directly or indirectly.

Indirect (representative) political participation is carried out through elected representatives. Direct (direct) political participation is the impact of a citizen on power without intermediaries. It has the following forms: the reaction of citizens to impulses emanating from the political system; participation of citizens in the activities of political parties, organizations, movements; direct actions of citizens (participation in rallies, pickets, etc.); appeals and letters to authorities, meetings with political figures; participation in actions related to the election of representatives, with the transfer of decision-making powers to them; activity of political leaders. The designated forms of direct political participation can be individual, group, mass.

Features of the political participation of the individual:
1) self-determination of the individual in the socio-political space with respect to diverse political structures;
2) self-assessment of one's own qualities, properties, capabilities as an active subject of politics.

The scope of possible participation is determined by political rights and freedoms.

Types of political participation:
1) random (one-time) participation - a person only periodically takes or performs actions that have political goals or have political meaning;

2) participation "part-time" - a person participates in political life more actively, but political activity is not his main activity;

3) professional participation - a person makes political activity his profession.
The political development of the individual is one of the factors affecting the intensity, content and stability of political participation.

Forms of political participation:
1) the appeal of an individual to power structures in order to satisfy personal or group needs;
2) lobbying activities to establish contacts with the political elite in order to influence its decisions in favor of a group of persons;
3) sending various projects and proposals for the adoption of regulations and laws to the authorities;
4) political activity as a member of a party, a movement focused on gaining power or influencing it;
5) elections, referenda (lat. referendum - what should be reported) - the will of all citizens of the state on an important issue for him.

The opposite form is demonstrative non-participation, political apathy and lack of interest in politics - absenteeism. Absenteeism (Latin absens - absent) is a form of apoliticality, manifested in the evasion of voters from participating in referendums and elections to government bodies.

5. Topic: "Political leadership"

Plan:
1. The essence of political leadership.
2. Functions of a political leader:
a) integrative;
b) oriented;
c) instrumental;
d) mobilization;
e) communicative;
3. Types of leadership:
a) depending on the scale of leadership;
b) depending on the style of leadership;
c) M. Weber's typology.

The main provisions of the topic:

Political leadership is the permanent, priority and legitimate influence of one or more persons in positions of power over the entire society or group. The nature of political leadership is quite complex and does not lend itself to an unambiguous interpretation.

Functions of a political leader:
1) analyzes the political situation, correctly assesses the state of society;
2) formulates goals, develops a program of action;
3) strengthens the connection between the authorities and the people, provides the authorities with mass support;
4) protects society from a split, performs the function of an arbiter in the clash of various groups;
5) conducts political discussions with opponents, communicates with parties, organizations, movements.

There are various classifications of leaders.

Leadership types:
In terms of leadership:
1) national leader;
2) the leader of a large social group;
3) the leader of a political party.

Leadership style:
1) democratic;
2) authoritarian.

The typology of leadership proposed by M. Weber is widespread. Depending on the method of legitimizing power, he identified three main types of leadership: traditional, charismatic and rational-legal. The authority of traditional leaders is based on faith in traditions and customs. The right to rule is inherited by the leader. Charismatic leadership is based on faith in the exceptional, outstanding qualities of the leader. Rational-legal leadership is characterized by faith in the legitimacy of the leader's election procedure with the help of developed procedures and formal rules. The power of the rational-legal leader is based on law.

Let's consider some of the most difficult tasks for graduates of the content line "Politics".

Tasks for systematizing the material

As mentioned above, the graduates experienced difficulties in completing tasks of an advanced level - the analysis of two judgments. According to the specification of control measuring materials for the 2011 unified state exam in social studies, this task is A17.

Examples of tasks A17

1. Are the following statements about a democratic state correct?
A. A democratic state provides a high standard of living for all citizens.
B. In a democratic state, the protection of the rights of all citizens is guaranteed.
1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are true;
4) both judgments are wrong.

When completing the task, you need to remember which state is called democratic. A democratic state is a state whose structure and activities correspond to the will of the people, the generally recognized rights and freedoms of man and citizen. It is not enough just to proclaim the state democratic (totalitarian states do this too), the main thing is to ensure its arrangement of ideas with appropriate legal institutions, real guarantees of democracy.

The most important features of a democratic state: a) real representative democracy; b) ensuring the rights and freedoms of man and citizen. As participants in political life, all citizens in a democratic state are equal. However, not all states can actually protect human rights and freedoms even today. One of the main reasons is the state of the country's economy. After all, the social function can be carried out in full only at a high level economic development. This is the most difficult task, since the solution of social issues requires an increase in production, "the accumulation of national wealth." This means that a high standard of living for all citizens in a democratic state is not always ensured due to economic problems, first of all.
Answer: 2.

2. Are the following statements about electoral systems correct?
A. The majoritarian electoral system is characterized by the nomination of candidates on party lists.
B. The majoritarian electoral system is characterized by the nomination of candidates in single-seat constituencies.
1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are true;
4) both judgments are wrong.
Answer: 2 (see theory above)

3. Are the following statements correct?
A. The concept of "political system" is broader than the concept of "political regime
B. Within the same political regime, there may be different political systems
1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are true;
4) both judgments are wrong.

Recall what the terms "political regime" and "political system" mean.

The political system is defined as a set of state and non-state political institutions that express the political interests of various social groups and ensure their participation in political decision-making by the state. An integral part of the political system that ensures its functioning are legal, political norms and political traditions. The political regime is a set of means and methods by which the ruling elites exercise economic, political and ideological power in the country. One of the structural components of the institutional subsystem of the political system is the state. And the political regime is one of the elements of the form of the state. Therefore, we see that the first statement is true.

Let's deal with the second statement. There are democratic and totalitarian political systems. The political regime can be characterized as democratic, authoritarian or totalitarian. The same political system can function in different regimes depending on the intentions of the ruling elite and its leader. But within the same political regime, different political systems cannot exist. The second statement is incorrect.
Answer: 1.

Low results were also demonstrated in the performance of the task on the use of terms and concepts in a certain context (B6).

Examples of tasks B6

1. Read the text below with a number of words missing.

“A classification has become widespread in political science that distinguishes, depending on the grounds and conditions for acquiring party membership, personnel and mass _____________ (BUT). The former are distinguished by the fact that they are formed around a group of political ____________ (B), and the basis of their structure is a committee of activists. Cadre parties are usually formed "from above" on the basis of various parliamentary ________ (AT), associations of the party bureaucracy. Such parties usually intensify their activities only during ___________ (G). Other parties are centralized, well-disciplined organizations. They attach great importance to the ideological _________ (D) party members. Such parties are most often formed "from below", on the basis of trade unions and other public ____________ (E) reflecting the interests of various social groups”.

The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can only be used once. Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

1) unity;
2) fraction;
3) elections;
4) movement;
5) leader;
6) society;
7) party;
8) group;
9) membership.

The table below lists the letters that indicate the omission of a word.
Write in the table under each letter the number of the word you have chosen.

BUT	B	AT	G	D	E
7	5	8	3	1	4

Used materials:
1. Analytical report on the results of the USE 2010. Social science.
http://www.fipi.ru/view/sections/138/docs/522.html
3. Codifier of content elements and requirements for the level of training of graduates of general educational institutions for the 2011 unified state exam in social science.
4. FBTZ open segment - http://www.fipi.ru
5. Social science. Grade 11: textbook for educational institutions: profile level / (L.N. Bogolyubov, A.N. Lazebnikova, N.M. Smirnova and others.); ed. L. N. Bogolyubova (and others) M .: "Enlightenment". - 4th ed. - M. : Enlightenment, 2010.