The video lesson "Sectoral and territorial structure of the world economy" discusses the main features and features constituent parts world economy. Thanks to this lesson, you will get acquainted with three types of the structure of the world economy, learn how the scientific and technological revolution affects the sectoral structure of the world economy; the teacher will tell you about the main models of the world economy. The lesson details the geographical structural differences in the world economy.
Topic: Scientific and technological revolution and the world economy
Lesson:Sectoral and territorial structure of the world economy
In its development, human society and its economic activity go through three main stages of development: pre-industrial (agrarian), industrial and post-industrial.
pre-industrial society- a society with an agrarian way of life, with a predominance of subsistence farming, a class hierarchy, sedentary structures and tradition-based methods of sociocultural regulation. It is characterized by manual labor, extremely low rates of development of production, which can satisfy the needs of people only at a minimal level. It is extremely inertial, therefore it is not very susceptible to innovations. Most of the population is employed in agriculture. This structure has been preserved in the following countries: Chad, Cameroon, Somalia, Sierra Leone, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Rwanda.
industrial society- a society formed in the process and as a result of industrialization, the development of machine production, the emergence of forms of labor organization adequate to it, the application of the achievements of technical and technological progress. It is characterized by mass, in-line production, mechanization and automation of labor, the development of the market for goods and services, the humanization of economic relations, the growing role of management, and the formation of civil society. The industrial structure of the economy is dominated by industry. This structure is typical for the following countries: Qatar, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Gabon, Algeria, Brunei, Libya.
Rice. 1. Industry is the main direction in the industrial structure of the economy
post-industrial society- this is the next stage in the development of society and the economy after the industrial society, the economy of which is dominated by an innovative sector of the economy with a highly productive industry, knowledge industry, with a high share of high-quality and innovative services in GDP, with competition in all types of economic and other activities. distinctive features post-industrial society from the industrial - very high labor productivity, high quality of life, the predominant sector of the innovative economy with high technology and venture business. And the high cost and productivity of high-quality national human capital, generating an excess of innovation that causes competition among themselves. The post-industrial structure is dominated by the service sector, non-material production. This structure is typical for the following countries: USA, France, Japan, Monaco, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, Singapore. Scientific and technological revolution had a significant impact on the formation of the post-industrial structure.
Signs of the post-industrial structure of the economy:
1. Transition from the production of material goods to the production of services.
2. The predominance of knowledge workers.
3. Development of science-intensive industries.
4. Decision making based on modern technologies.
5. Establishment of strict environmental control.
Some authors also distinguish the fourth stage of the development of society - the informational one, others believe that this is the informational phase of development in the post-industrial structure. In the information structure, the role of information is increasing, the number of people involved in information technologies and working with information is increasing, the informatization of society is growing, etc.
The scientific and technical revolution as a whole had a significant impact on the sectoral structure of material production: the share of industry and the service sector increased, in addition, there was a change in production techniques, the creation of new materials, automation, and much more.
In the era of scientific and technological revolution, the share of manufacturing industries in the sectoral structure of industry increased, which provide approximately 90% of the value of all products. As part of this group, the branches of the so-called avant-garde trio are distinguished:
1. Mechanical engineering.
2. Power industry.
3. Chemical industry.
In addition, thanks to the scientific and technological revolution, changes have also taken place in agriculture, for example, the production of fodder and industrial crops has increased.
Territorial structure of the economy- a set of mutually located territorial elements that are in complex interaction with each other.
As a result, a certain structure (system) of farms may develop on the territory.
System of economic regions(characteristic mainly for developed countries):
1. Highly developed areas.
2. Old industrial areas.
3. Agricultural regions.
4. Areas of new developments.
Rice. 2. Northern Canada - area of new development
Colonial type of economic structure, its distinctive features:
1. The predominance of low-commodity, low-productive agriculture and the mining industry.
2. Weak development manufacturing industry.
3. Strong backlog of transport.
4. Restriction of the non-productive sphere, mainly trade and services.
5. The high role and importance of the capitals.
6. The territorial structure of the economy is also characterized by general underdevelopment and strong disproportions remaining from the colonial past.
To smooth out contrasts in the structure of the economy and its location, regional policy- is a system of economic, political, administrative measures aimed at the rational distribution of production and equalization of people's living standards.
Currently, the regional policy is most actively pursued in India, China, Brazil, South Africa, Australia, Nigeria, and Kazakhstan.
Homework
Topic 4, Item 3
1. What types of economic structure do you know? What are the main differences between them?
Bibliography
Main
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Additional
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Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections
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Literature for preparing for the GIA and the Unified State Examination
1. Control and measuring materials. Geography: Grade 10 / Comp. E.A. Zhizina. - M.: VAKO, 2012. - 96 p.
2. Thematic control. Geography. Nature of Russia. Grade 8 / N.E. Burgasova, S.V. Bannikov: Tutorial. - M.: Intellect-Centre, 2010. - 144 p.
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4. Geography. Tests. Grade 10 / G.N. Elkin. - St. Petersburg: Parity, 2005. - 112 p.
5. Thematic control in geography. Economic and social geography of the world. Grade 10 / E.M. Ambartsumova. - M.: Intellect-Centre, 2009. - 80 p.
6. The most complete edition of typical options for real USE assignments: 2010. Geography / Comp. Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: Astrel, 2010. - 221 p.
7. The optimal bank of tasks for preparing students. Unified State Exam 2012. Geography: Textbook / Comp. EM. Ambartsumova, S.E. Dyukov. - M.: Intellect-Centre, 2012. - 256 p.
8. The most complete edition of typical options for real USE assignments: 2010. Geography / Comp. Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2010. - 223 p.
9. State final certification of graduates of 9 classes in a new form. Geography. 2013: Textbook / V.V. Drums. - M.: Intellect-Centre, 2013. - 80 p.
10. Geography. Diagnostic work in the format of the Unified State Examination 2011. - M .: MTSNMO, 2011. - 72 p.
11. Tests. Geography. 6-10 cells: Teaching aid/ A.A. Letyagin. - M .: LLC "Agency" KRPA "Olimp": Astrel, AST, 2001. - 284 p.
12. USE 2010. Geography. Collection of tasks / Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - 272 p.
13. Tests in geography: Grade 10: to the textbook by V.P. Maksakovskiy “Economic and social geography of the world. Grade 10 / E.V. Baranchikov. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Publishing house "Exam", 2009. - 94 p.
14. The most complete edition of typical options for real tasks of the USE: 2009: Geography / Comp. Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2009. - 250 p.
15. Unified state exam 2009. Geography. Universal materials for the preparation of students / FIPI - M .: Intellect-Center, 2009. - 240 p.
Materials on the Internet
1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().
2. Federal portal Russian Education ().
4. The official information portal of the exam ().
Sectoral structure of the economy - the totality of its parts (industries and sub-sectors), historically formed as a result of the social division of labor. It is measured in relative terms and is expressed as the share of individual industries and sub-sectors in the total volume of all production (by value). The sectoral structure of the economy can also be judged by the structure of employment of the economically active population. There are three levels of branch structure: macrostructure, mesostructure and microstructure.
The macrostructure reflects the largest economic proportions: between the production and non-production spheres, between industry, construction, agriculture, transport, etc. It is these proportions that determine what type the country will be assigned to: agricultural, industrial or post-industrial.
The agrarian structure of the economy now prevails only in some countries, primarily in the least developed. In the GDP structure of Somalia, Tanzania, Afghanistan, Laos, Cambodia, Nepal, agriculture still accounts for more than 50%. And the proportion of the economically active population employed in this industry is usually even higher. In a number of countries in Tropical Africa, it is 80-90%.
The industrial structure of the economy in the middle of the XX century. prevailed in all economically developed countries. Then the importance of industry began to decline. Today, there are practically no countries left in the world in which this industry would provide more than 50% of GDP. The same applies to the employment of the economically active population.
Perhaps the most compact group of countries with a distinct industrial structure is formed by some of the CIS countries, the countries of Eastern Europe and the Baltic countries, that is, countries with economies in transition, and China, which for decades have emphasized a policy of socialist industrialization. Some oil-producing countries and individual countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America that are industrializing also have a similar structure. However, in all these countries, the share of industry (as well as the share of agriculture) continues to decline, giving way to the non-manufacturing sector.
The post-industrial structure of the economy began to take shape with the transition to the scientific and technological revolution stage. It is characterized by the following main features:
1) in the economic sphere - the transition from the production of goods to the production of services (in the non-production sphere itself, the fastest growing service sector - consumer (household, educational, health) and business (information, advertising, etc.),
2) in the field of employment - the predominance of knowledge workers,
3) in the field of science - a rational combination of fundamental and applied research, which primarily ensures the development of knowledge-intensive industries,
4) in the field of management - decision-making based on the latest information technology and technology,
5) in the field of ecology - the establishment of reliable control over human intervention in the environment.
In the late 90s. in the USA, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Australia, the share of services in GDP has already reached 70% or even exceeded this level. In most other countries of Western Europe, in Japan and Canada, it is 60-70%. In Russia in the 90s. the share of the service sector also increased significantly. It is interesting that very small countries, often microstates, living off tourism, various types of financial activities and the provision of other services have an even higher share of the service sector in the structure of GDP.
The basic sectors of the world economy are industry, agriculture, construction, trade, transport and communications, as well as service industries. Each branch of the economy, in turn, is divided into so-called integrated branches, branches and types of production. Each of the enlarged industries includes homogeneous, but specialized industries in the production of certain types of products.
Different subsystems of the world economy are currently characterized by a different branch type of production. When referring an enterprise, types of production and services to a particular sector of the economy, the purpose of the product or services, the type of basic raw material and material, the nature of the technological process are taken into account.
Each production is characterized by a certain range of manufactured products. A differentiated classification, which is based on the type of product and type of production, followed by their integration into industries, consolidated industries and sectors of the economy, facilitates the continuity of classification in the context of the developing international division of labor. Examples of industries of international specialization: Japan - cars, Saudi Arabia - oil, Canada - grain.
The mesostructure of material production reflects the main proportions emerging within industry, agriculture, etc. it gives 3/4 of the gross output of the industry), the role of industrial and fodder crops, vegetables, and fruits is increasing in crop production.
In the structure of world industry, under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, there is a gradual increase in the share of manufacturing (providing 9/10 of the entire industry) and a change in the share of extractive industries, which is associated with a decrease in production capacity, an increase in the share of synthetic raw materials. But global trends and performance hide significant differences between economically developed and developing countries.
The microindustry structure reflects the shifts taking place in certain types of production, primarily industrial. The latest science-intensive types of mechanical engineering and the chemical industry are increasingly coming to the fore - as well as the production of electronic computers, motor vehicles, aerospace, laser technology, equipment for nuclear energy, etc.
Modern stage economic development The leading countries of the world are characterized by major shifts in the structure of the economy, which makes the transition to new intersectoral and reproduction proportions irreversible. This was also influenced by such factors as the raw materials and energy crises, which contributed to the rise in the cost of raw materials and energy carriers, and, consequently, equipment and construction. The investment process has become more complicated, and production costs have generally increased significantly. This weight not only caused, but also intensified the tendencies towards a rise in the cost of the reproductive process itself. This development of events objectively stimulates the entry of countries market economy into a new stage of the technological revolution.
The scientific and technological revolution has also caused major shifts in the structure of material production, which employs 1.5 billion people worldwide. Industry is the main, leading branch of material production, in which the predominant part of the gross domestic product and national income is created. For example, in modern conditions, the share of industry in the total GDP of developed countries is about 40%. The leading role of industry is also due to the fact that the degree of satisfaction of society's needs for high-quality products, the provision of technical re-equipment, and so on, depend on success in its development. Modern industry consists of many independent branches of production, each of which includes a large group of related enterprises and production associations.
In the sectoral structure of industry, the share of processing industries has increased even more, which now account for about 9/10 of the value of all output. In the composition of this group, industries stand out especially - machine-building, chemical industry, electric power industry, on which scientific and technological progress primarily depends. The decrease in the share of the extractive industry to a little over 1/10 is explained both by the constant decrease in the energy and material intensity of production, and by the growing replacement of natural raw materials with synthetic ones.
Complex processes also occur in individual industries. Some industries generally “leave the stage” (for example, locomotive building), others - there are many more of them - reappear, determining the constant “fragmentation” of the structure. According to the UN classification, modern industry already includes more than 300 industries and sub-sectors. On the other hand, the era of scientific and technological revolution is characterized by the unification of different industries and the formation of intersectoral complexes: fuel and energy, machine-building, agro-industrial and others.
Changes in the sectoral structure of agriculture are slower. Nevertheless, as intensification grows, as a rule, the share of animal husbandry increases, which in many economically developed countries provides 3/4 of the gross output of this industry. And in crop production, the role of industrial and forage crops, vegetables and fruits is increasing.
The scientific and technological revolution has made great changes in the "division of labor" between the individual modes of transport. The role of rail transport as a whole has decreased. Road transport is the leader in intracity and suburban passenger transportation. Maritime transport provides the predominant part of international trade, but almost does not participate in the transportation of passengers, with the exception of tourists. Air transport plays an important role in the transportation of passengers over medium and especially long distances.
In the structure of world material production, there has also been a trend towards diversification of the sectoral structure, as well as towards the formation of intersectoral complexes.
The concept of the world economy
The concept of the world economy has found wide circulation in the scientific literature, as well as in everyday life.
Definition 1
The world economy consists of a set of national economies (states) interconnected by a system of international geographical division of labor, as well as socio-economic and political relations that are subject to the objective laws of the market economy.
The world economy is part of a complex, open, unified global socio-economic world system.
There are several principles by which the world economy is formed:
- the plurality of its constituent elements,
- hierarchy,
- multilevel,
- structure.
The most important components of the world economy system:
- Land (territory of states, natural and resource potential),
- Labor (labor force),
- Capital,
- Infrastructure and technology.
The structure of the world economy
The structure of the world economy is determined by three sections:
- Industry structure,
- territorial structure,
- Functional structure.
The definition of these structures can occur in the expression:
- Natural (million tons, m3, etc.)
- value (gross output in millions of dollars, hryvnia, rubles, etc.).
Through these indicators, the main proportions are characterized:
- Renewable proportions of production of means of production and consumer goods;
- Sectoral proportions in the ratio of various sectors of the economy;
- Territorial proportions characterizing the distribution of production by states, regions and territories;
- Functional proportions in accordance with specialization (“lower floors”, “upper floors”);
- Foreign economic proportions, components of the import and export of goods (services) by various states, regions, individual industries, etc.
Sectoral structure of the world economy
The sectoral structure of the world economy can be characterized by the ratio of the various divisions of the economy.
In accordance with the UN methodology, there are three main areas of the world economy:
- Primary area, including agriculture and forestry, fishing, mining;
- Secondary sector, including manufacturing and construction;
- Tertiary sphere, consisting of the sphere of transport and communications, trade, public catering and personal services;
- Quaternary sphere, including the sphere of finance, management, education, science, culture, public services, etc.
Remark 1
Many states with a lower level of development include the extractive industry in the secondary sphere.
Functional structure of the world economy
With the help of the functional structure of the world economy, the international aspect of the division of labor is reflected. In all spheres of the world economy, complex intersectoral complexes are being formed that perform the corresponding function and specialize in any kind of production in the MRI system (agro-industrial, military-industrial, research and production sector, etc.). At the same time, the formation and functioning of types of national economies take place, which form regions of the world with various national economic specializations.
The world economy is a complex dynamic economic system, consisting of numerous, closely related macroeconomic elements, which are the subjects of the world economy.
The relationship between these elements is the economic structure of the world economy .
To understand the world economy, it is very important to know the structure of the world economy, since the economic structure, its optimality is of great importance for the sustainable and effective development of the world economy.
The structure of the world economy consists of the following major substructures:
- industry;
- reproductive;
- territorial;
- socio-economic.
Industry structure is the ratio between different sectors in the economy.
An industry is a group of enterprises that produces a homogeneous product.
In macroeconomic analysis, five main groups of industries are usually distinguished:
1. Agriculture, extractive industry - primary sector, which covers industries extracting the "product of nature".
2. Manufacturing industry, economic infrastructure - secondary sector.
3. Services (state, household, financial, legal - tertiary sector.
The pattern of changes in the sectoral structure of the modern world economy is the consistent growth of the service sector, including trade, transport and communications, the share of which is: more than 80% in the US economy, about 70% in Canada, up to 80% in England, more than 70% in Japan, more than 60% - Germany, France, Italy, Benelux countries.
At the same time, a sharp increase in the importance of the financial sector, computer science, education, science, medicine, communications, telecommunications, transport, trade, etc., whose products are intangible, is characteristic.
Different countries are characterized by a different ratio of these industries: in developing countries, the raw material factor prevails and, accordingly, in the structure - the first two groups of industries; in developed countries - the last two groups of industries.
The rapid development of the manufacturing industry is evidence of the rapid industrialization of the country, which is typical for developed and "new industrial countries" - Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, according to individual indicators- India, the states of Southeast Asia (the so-called "four dragons"). These countries (primarily Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong) over the past decade have increasingly specialized in the latest, technically complex and science-intensive industries, in the production of products oriented to the world market.
In the structure of industry, the share of the latest science-intensive industries is growing: electric power, nuclear and chemical industries, computer production, and robotics. A more qualitative use of raw materials is characteristic (development of related industries, secondary use of raw materials).
The leading industry remains engineering, and it is in this industry that there is a noticeable trend towards a decrease in the share of raw materials, energy carriers, and the cost of living labor. The United States occupies the leading position in the world in terms of the scale of production of machine-building products.
In the conditions of scientific and technical progress, the following directions of development of machine-building production are the most characteristic:
1) expansion of equipment production, allowing a sharp increase in the level of automation of production as a whole (microprocessors, industrial robots, automated assembly systems, control devices for determining product quality, etc.);
2) equipment manufacturing, capable of ensuring the flexibility of technological processes;
3) creation of new technological processes, allowing more economical and comprehensive use of raw materials and energy resources (laser technology, metal bonding, cold pressing, etc.).
4) development of "unmanned" technology- this is the development of machine systems for agriculture, construction, mining, storage, etc., excluding the physical participation of a person in production.
Reproductive structure is the ratio between different uses of the produced GDP.
Reproduction- continuous repetition of production cycles with constantly improving indicators (if we consume everything that we have produced, then there will be nothing to invest in expanding production, therefore it is necessary to produce in the form of accumulation ).
The following parts are distinguished in the reproductive structure: consumption, accumulation and export- the main links of the reproductive structure.
If 102% of GDP goes to consumption, then there can no longer be other links, which is a sign of significant distortions in the structure of the national economy, social unrest, increased tension, and if consumption is 70%, accumulation - 25, export - 5%, then such ratios reflect the most optimal structure. Due to these savings (in this case 25%), new investments are made in the economy, certain export-import relations are developing, and there is no social tension in the country.
The dynamics of the reproductive structure of the economy of different countries has significant differences. This applies primarily to the proportions of "consumption" and "accumulation".
Territorial structure- the ratio of the economy of different countries and territories. Territorial structure refers to how economic activity is distributed across the territory of a country (for example, Russia), between countries, regions, around the world.
Socio-economic structure– this is the ratio between different socio-economic structures.
Socio-economic structure– this is a specific type of economy, which is based on the dominant type of property.
The following structures are distinguished:
Clan-communal, where people live in communities, tribes, clans, there is no private property;
Feudal - with the presence of feudal property;
Small-scale - with a predominance of small shops, workshops, craft farms and independent owners;
Capitalist - characterized by a large industrial structure, private capital, monopolies, etc.
According to its functional purpose, the structure of the world economy is divided into two very important groups:
I - peaceful production;
II - military production.
Peaceful production is the production of goods for peaceful purposes.
military production- production of military goods: weapons, military equipment (ammunition), etc.
The ratio of civilian and military production is very important for the socio-economic development of any country. In each country, these ratios have different values. As world experience shows, the higher the share of military production, the lower the share of civilian production and the worse the economic situation of a given country. Military production in any case is a deduction from the general welfare of the people. The higher the share of military production, the poorer the country and the lower the standard of living of the population, other things being equal..
If military production (VP) is approximately equal to 1–2% of GDP, such a structure is considered the most acceptable, but as military production grows, the negative impact of military production on the country's economy increases; 6% of GDP is already considered the maximum, and a higher percentage of GDP leads the country to militarization, degradation of peaceful production and, as a result, to a drop in the living standards of the population.
There are very few countries in history where military production exceeded 6%.
A striking example of such a country was the USSR, where military production in the gross domestic product by the end of the 80s. reached 25%, and in industrial production it was even higher (up to 2/3).
One of the reasons for the crisis of the British economy by the end of the 70s. was a sharp increase in the share of military production. The size of military production depends on a number of socio-economic reasons and on political regime countries. A dictatorial regime (which was typical for our country) always leads to an increase in military production.
The formation of the world economy has passed several stages.
I stage–stage of formation of the world economy (late XIX–mid-twentieth century)
Main features:
1. There was an economic division of the world.
At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, large share capital rushed to other countries in pursuit of new profits. The intensified export of capital and wide international exchange gave rise to international monopolies, which divided among themselves world sales markets, sources of raw materials, and areas for the investment of capital by economic methods. This was done through contracts, leases, concessions, and the like.
2. The territorial division of the world has ended.
Since 1914, there has been an intensified struggle for the colonies. As you know, this led to the completion of the territorial division of the world by the great powers, and then to wars for its redistribution. Thus, a decisive step was taken towards the formation of a world economy.
3. The role of the colonies in the world economy has changed.
With the completion of the territorial division of the world, the role of the colonies in the international economy is changing significantly. Previously, these subordinate territories were for the metropolises mainly an area for the profitable sale of goods. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the colonies became sources of raw materials, cheap labor, an area for profitable investment of capital, and important military-strategic regions. Huge profits were pumped out of the colonies with the help of taxes, as well as various non-economic methods. The metropolises did everything to ensure that even after the collapse of the colonial system, the former colonies were firmly tied to the economically developed countries.
4. By the end of the 19th century, a world market for goods and services had developed.
Although the world market, as now, was dominated by goods, at the same time some types of services were also widely sold - freight, banking, exchange. Russia acted on the world market primarily as an exporter of grain and other agricultural products, as well as timber to Western Europe, a supplier of finished products to neighboring Asian countries, and also as an importer of Western European finished products, materials and semi-finished products.
5. In the structure of the world economy at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, agriculture dominated.
The industry was dominated by light and food industries, based mainly on handicraft and small enterprises. The service sector was represented mainly by trade, as well as homework for hire, which was performed by numerous domestic servants (even middle-class people kept it). In Russia, on the eve of the First World War, 75% of the population was employed in agriculture, 9% in industry and construction, and 16% in the service sector.
Thus, the first stage in the development of the world economy (the end of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century), which lasted several decades, is associated with the emergence and establishment of the dominance of international monopolies, World Wars I and II, and the gradual elimination of the colonial system. Within the world economy of this period, there were sharp contradictions that made it unstable.
II stage–stage of development of the world economy (50s–80s of the twentieth century)
Main features:
1. Military-economic confrontation between two socio-political systems.
By the middle of the twentieth century, the world economy was split into two parts: the world capitalist and the world socialist.
In the system of world economic relations, the world capitalist economy occupied a dominant position: 9/10 of all international trade at the beginning of the 1990s accounted for trade within the framework of the world capitalist economy; through the channels of international economic exchange at the end of the 80s, 1/5 of the total gross product capitalist world.
In the former socialist countries, 1/3 of the world national income was produced, including 1/4 from the CMEA countries.
In 1949, the NATO bloc (15 states) was created, in 1955 the block - the Warsaw Pact (7 states).
2. Since the 60s, developing states have entered the system of the world economy.
By the mid-1970s, the so-called "new industrial countries" of Southeast Asia (the first wave - 4 "small dragons" - South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore) and Latin American countries: Brazil, Argentina, Mexico.
3. Formation of an open economy in most countries of the world.
4. Further deepening of MRI, the emergence of international economic integration.
5. Expansion of international trade, international traffic
capital and labor force.
Thus, the most characteristic features of the second stage of the MX were the creation of an open economy and the military-economic confrontation between the two socio-political systems.
Stage III–stage of improvement of the world economy (90s of XX–beginning of the 21st century)
Main features:
1. The emergence and development of an open economy in the former socialist countries.
2. A deep degree of MRI, strengthening the dynamism of world economic relations and expanding their scope.
This is evidenced by the steady annual growth rates of world trade in the 90s (up to 6%), its absolute volumes approaching 10 trillion. dollars a year.
3. High degree of intensity of the international movement of factors
production: capital, labor, technology, information.
4. The global nature of the sphere of international commodity exchange, capital flows, labor migration and information. Further internationalization of production and capital.
5. General liberalization of foreign economic relations, international investment climate.
6. Acceleration and deepening of the processes of economic integration of countries and regions.
7. Growing desire for interstate regulation of current economic and monetary and financial processes on an international scale (IMF, WB, WTO, annual meetings of the G8).
Thus, the characteristic features of the modern world economy were the collapse of the World Socialist System, the Soviet Union, the emergence and development of an open economy in the former socialist countries, the increasing internationalization, globalization and transnationalization of the world economy.
Introduction
The acceleration of scientific and technological progress constantly makes new, ever higher demands on the economy and society of various countries participating in the world economy, creates tension in the interconnections of its divisions. At present, there is every reason to talk not only about the emergence, but also about the deepening of the structural crisis of the world economy.
The first acutely tangible signs of the crisis appeared in the early 1970s. Structural adjustment of those years significantly changed the sectoral priorities of economic development. Increasing role of resource conservation, falling demand for traditional types of raw materials and materials have sharply limited the development of a number of basic industries and increased the development of science-intensive ones.
World economy is a complex, mobile system that is in constant change. Therefore, today the internationalization of the world economy has reached a new level, which is facilitated by the processes of integration. Enormous shifts have taken place in the development of the productive forces. World production is almost twice as fast as population growth. Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, qualitative transformations of the world's productive forces are taking place. There is a technological revolution going on in the industrialized countries. Informatics and communications, modern automation and the use of robots, new artificial materials (polymers, composites, ceramics, etc.) have changed the face of production and products. Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, there have been profound structural shifts in the economy, in the industrialized countries of the West, the transition to an intensive type of reproduction has been completed.
Economic development as a consequence of the mobility of the world economy system is inextricably linked with a change in the relationship between sectors and branches of the national economy. In some cases, without transformations in the sectoral structure, further development is impossible, which is typical for the process of transformation of post-socialist countries. In others, structural change is a consequence of growth. There is a functional relationship between economic growth and changes in the sectoral structure. Therefore, the sectoral structure of the world economy is under the close attention of analysts.
Despite the attention of analysts, this problem is not covered in sufficient detail in the literature, but this is not surprising, because most economists are trying to analyze not the sectoral structure itself, but the reasons that entail its current state (international division of labor at the present stage, integration processes , the impact of scientific and technological progress).
The main goal of this work is at the same time its main difficulty. It consists in systematizing and generalizing the available information, giving as accurate data as possible, revealing the actual state of the sectoral structure of the world economy, showing the distribution of world industrial capacities, linking it with the economic development of individual countries.
Chapter I. Sectoral economic justification for production
1.1. Sectoral structure of the economy
The economy of any country is a national economic complex arising on the basis of social and economic development, interregional division of labor and integration processes.
The sectoral or component structure of the national economic complex reflects the relationships, connections and proportions between large groups industries.
The entire national economic complex is divided into groups of industries:
n branches of material production: industry, construction, agriculture, as well as sectors related to the supply of the population with products, that is, procurement, logistics, trade and public catering;
n branches of the non-productive sphere: housing and communal services, consumer services, transport, communications, etc.;
n social services for the population: health care, science, culture and art, education, management and defense sectors.
For the study of any national economic complex, the branch functional classification is of great importance. It includes four groups of industries: 1) primary - mining and agriculture; 2) secondary - manufacturing industry; 3) transport, trade, housing construction, health care, serving production and the population; 4) management, science and scientific service.
The development of production leads to the constant emergence of new branches of production, especially on the basis of scientific and technological progress. At the same time, there is a process of reducing the share of extractive industries due to the growth of knowledge-intensive ones.
For the modern structure of the national economy feature is the presence of sectoral and intersectoral complexes. Moreover, the process of strengthening production ties and integrating different stages of production is currently underway. Such interbranch complexes as fuel and energy, metallurgical, machine-building, chemical-forestry, construction, agro-industrial, and transport complexes have developed. All these complexes, in turn, have a complex and differentiated structure.
In the context of the development of market relations, infrastructure is becoming increasingly important. Infrastructure is a set of material means to ensure production and social needs. It is divided into industrial and social. The production infrastructure includes transport, communications, storage and packaging facilities, logistics, engineering structures, heating mains, water supply, communications and networks, gas and oil pipelines, irrigation systems, etc.; social - passenger transport, public utilities of cities and towns. Infrastructure, both industrial and social, plays an important role in the complexity of the national economy and in the development of new territories. I would like to note that at the starting level of the transition to market relations in our country, an irrational sectoral structure has developed. The branches of material production account for over 70%, the branches of the non-productive sphere - less than 30%. The market economy in civilized countries is characterized by other proportions, in most of them over 50% are social, non-productive sectors.
Modern industry is characterized by a high level of specialization. As a result of the deepening of the social division of labor,
a multitude of industries, sub-sectors and types of production, which in their totality form the sectoral structure of industry, which is determined by many social and economic factors. The main ones are: the level of development of production, technical progress, socio-historical conditions, production skills of the population, natural resources. The most significant factor determining changes in the sectoral structure of industry is scientific and technological progress and its main directions - automation, computerization and mechanization of production, improvement of technologies, specialization and cooperation of production. Changing and improving the sectoral structure of industry under the influence of scientific and technological progress are ongoing.
In the current classification of industry, five complex industries are identified. Thus, the fuel and energy complex includes branches of the fuel and energy industries (coal, oil, gas, shale, peat, electric power). Scientific and technological progress has a particularly large impact on the sectoral structure of mechanical engineering, where such industries as electrical engineering, instrument-making with sub-sectors are developing: the production of computer equipment, control and regulation devices for complex technological processes, robots, etc. new sub-sectors have been created in the metallurgical , chemical and other industries.
Industry is divided into mining and manufacturing. Manufacturing industries form the backbone of heavy industry. They account for 90% of the total industrial output. According to the economic purpose of products, the entire industry is divided into two large groups: the production of means of production (group A) and the production of
production of consumer goods (group B). Share of products of the group industries
This also had an impact on the change in the structure of foreign trade. In general, it shifted towards manufacturing products. In the late 80s, it accounted for 75% of the world's foreign trade (1980 - 58%), in developing countries - 68% of foreign trade (1980 - 42%). At the same time, developing countries not only began to export more manufactured products, but also began to import more high-tech goods.
1.2. Quantification and territorial aspect
specialized industries
An important influence on the functioning of the sectoral structure of the economic system is exerted by the distribution of resources throughout the world, as well as the organizational forms in which the use of resources takes place. The national economic complex of a single country is distinguished by a complex structure, in which, along with the sectoral structure, it is necessary to single out an equally important structure - the territorial one.
The territorial structure is understood as the division of the national economy system into territorial cells (taxons) - zones, regions of different ranks, industrial centers, nodes. It changes much more slowly than
sectoral structure, since its main elements are more strongly tied to
specific territory. However, the development of new territories with unique natural resources changes the structure of individual regions and contributes to the formation of new territorial complexes.
The spatial combination of industries and individual industries is formed under the influence of many factors. These include mine security
raw material resources, fuel and energy, material, labor. The noted factors are closely interconnected, having a certain impact on the location of enterprises and sectors of the national economy. In the process of locating production, various forms of territorial organization have developed. There are large economic zones, industrial areas, industrial agglomerations, industrial hubs, industrial centers and industrial centers.
The sectoral structure of the economy is analyzed on the basis of the GDP indicator calculated by sectors. First of all, the correlation between the large national economic branches of material and non-material production is studied. This ratio is revealed primarily by the share of the manufacturing industry.
To quantify the level of specialization of economic regions, indicators such as the coefficient of localization, the coefficient of per capita production, and the coefficient of inter-district marketability are used. Also, one of the main criteria for the location of industries in a certain territory is an indicator of their economic efficiency (the cost of production, taking into account its delivery to the consumer, specific capital investments per unit of capacity and profit). Along with the indicated indicators for each branch of production, a system of technical and economic indicators of its location is being developed. The provision of workers with basic production assets, power supply, resource reserves, etc., are important for justifying the location of production.
Chapter II. Sectoral structure of the world economy
1.1. International division of labor
At present, it is impossible to point to a country that would consider non-participation in the world economy to be in the national interest. The market method of managing became one of the recognized civilizational values. From the perspective of the world economy, the following three modern tendencies development:
n a significant expansion of forms of business activity that directly lead to the expansion of foreign investment;
n the decisive promotion of internationally operating production, which is primarily associated with transnational corporations;
n practical confirmation of ideas about the possibility of various national paradigms in determining the forms, methods and means of integration in the world economy.
Throughout the history of mankind, the development of social production has been associated with the progress of the division of labor, including national-territorial, intercountry. Various types and forms of exchange of economic activity between countries have led to the emergence of specific - international - relations, covering trade, as well as the movement of capital, labor, scientific and technological knowledge, experience and information.
Constant changes in the nature of labor under the influence of scientific and technological progress are accompanied by an increase in the specialization and orientation of certain industries and countries towards the production of specific goods that bring the greatest economic benefit. At the same time, along with the deepening of economic differences between individual groups of producers, their interdependence is increasing not only in the exchange of labor results, but also in the organization of joint production on the principles of cooperation, combination, complementarity of production, technological and resource-marketing processes. Consequently, the international division of labor both “separates” producers and creates economic incentives for their “connection”, consolidation of efforts at various stages of production, sale of goods and services.
Strengthening the internationalization of economic life is one of the main features of today's development of the world economy. It is based on the deepening of international specialization of production, which is closely related to such forms of participation of all countries in world economic relations as foreign trade in goods and services, international migration of capital and labor, integration.
Shifts in the nature of the development of the global division of labor over the past 10-15 years have significantly changed the conditions for international specialization. The acceleration of scientific and technological progress has added new incentives to the traditional factors of specialization of production, making it imperative to restructure the structure of production and exports accordingly.
Economic progress in our time must be measured in two interrelated, though not necessarily overlapping, dimensions. To determine its components, it is advisable to supplement the generally accepted standard indicators of the level, structure, dynamics of production and consumption with data characterizing the participation of each country in the international division of labor, and the resources on which this participation is based. The last group of data contains unique information about the competitiveness of local products, which, in the first approximation, can serve as an indicator of the effectiveness of the respective industries in terms of world standards. The international division of labor actually includes many areas economic activity. The place and role of any country in the international division of labor is determined by the totality of its real import needs and export opportunities, since both are necessary to identify the economic potential of the countries' world communication.
World War II, and then the Cold War, turned out to be an obstacle to the development of world economic ties, stopping it for a long time. Nevertheless, world economic ties gradually strengthened, especially after the collapse of the colonial system and the deployment (with the powerful support of the Soviet Union) of the struggle of national independent states for economic independence and a radical change in the order that dominated the world capitalist economy, which allowed some countries to develop and prosper at the expense of other states and peoples.
The specifics of relations between the, relatively speaking, industrially developed North - Western states, and the South - former colonies (developing countries) consisted in the desire of some groups of financial capital (mainly invested in energy, mineral and raw materials) to maintain at the core the former system of relations of the world economy , only to some extent modernizing it to meet the requirements of developing countries. At the same time, another group of financial capital (representing mainly the knowledge-intensive, high-tech industries of the largest investors) adhered to a different strategy: it sought to overcome the underdevelopment of the former colonies and dependent countries so that in the future (already in alliance with the large capital) to strengthen its position in the ever-increasing competition.
The aggravation of rivalry in various spheres of international economic relations has caused profound changes in the world economy. Monocentrism (the overwhelming superiority of the United States over other countries that make up the world capitalist economy) has been replaced by polycentrism. Integration processes at the same time, they could not be limited to the European continent. The interdependence of countries and peoples, intensified by the impact of the modern scientific and technological revolution and the spreading deep and wide of the market mechanism of management, became the “categorical imperative” of the time.
It is indicative that the formation of the world economy was completed about a century ago, when its subjects - the powers that at that time were called imperialist, colonialist, forcibly drew the whole world into the orbit of their foreign economic relations. Relations between the center and the periphery at that time were characterized as exploitative, because there was an unequal redistribution of resources and “export” by metropolitan countries to dependent countries of certain economic models.
In the second half of the 20th century, especially in its last quarter, these relations were significantly restructured. First, the industrialized countries have demonstrated the ability to develop effectively without colonies. The post-imperialist stage of their development coincided with the transition to the post-industrial model (energy- and resource-saving production of an intensive type with extensive use of technological progress).
Secondly, the modern scientific and technological revolution, universal and dynamic in its nature, has acquired fundamentally new forms of its deployment on the basis of the socially oriented market mechanism that has been formed.
Thirdly, the market economic model has acquired a general, universal character. The sphere of the international division of labor has received an organic national market basis in all corners of the globe. This contributes to the emergence of new powerful impulses for the economic rapprochement of countries and peoples, the gradual transformation of foreign economic relations into world economic ties of equal cooperation, which form the features of the modern world economy.
Fourthly, the energy, currency, commodity and other world crises (in particular, the debts of developing countries) predetermined significant fluctuations in the world markets for goods and services. On the whole, the cyclical and structural crises of the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s had a profound effect on changes in the system of relations in the world economy. It, as already noted, has increasingly begun to acquire a homogeneous, global market character (despite the remaining differences in the nature of the system in different countries, in particular, its specifics in Russia and the states of Eastern Europe, in China, Laos, North Korea, the Far East, in Cuba). In this regard, the forms and types of relations within the framework of the world economy reveal serious qualitative shifts in their development.
Along with the deepening of the traditional types of international division of labor, the substantive, detailed, technological, organizational and managerial division of labor is intensifying both at the intra-company-intercountry and at the interstate levels. All sorts of economic, financial, scientific, technical and other relations are increasingly intertwined in terms of both interstate treaties and agreements, and unions, alliances, strategic associations between corporations. At the same time, the sharpness of the contradictions between competing states and companies not only does not decrease, but, on the contrary, increases. However, paradoxical as it may seem, the rivalry, reaching the acute forms of struggle in the world markets for sources of raw materials (primarily energy resources), not only does not split the economic world, but also strengthens its integrity, the interdependence of states and corporations.
2.1. Distribution of world industrial branches
In industrialized countries, the general pattern of sectoral shifts is a noticeable decrease in the share of primary industries and agriculture, the technical modernization of industry and the rapid growth of service industries. The most radical changes are taking place at the level of sub-sectors, within which high-tech industries have the highest dynamics. Thus, in the US manufacturing industry, the decrease in the number of employed occurred mainly due to traditional industries with a high labor intensity of production (food, textile, clothing, leather), as well as due to capital-intensive industries (in particular, metallurgy). At the same time, in the electrical industry and instrument making, the number of employees has grown over the past 5 years by more than 1.5 times.
Characteristic changes are taking place in the industrial structure of developing countries, in particular the so-called newly industrialized countries (NIEs). These countries, primarily the East Asian four (Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong), increasingly specialize in technically complex and knowledge-intensive industries based on product quality and highly skilled workers. Advantages in the production of the most simple labor-intensive products (for example, textiles, clothing, footwear) can only be maintained by countries with cheaper labor, which later embarked on the path of export expansion (Sri Lanka, Indonesia, the Philippines, Bangladesh). They achieve competitiveness where the newly industrialized countries have lost their positions due to rising labor costs. Therefore, at the moment there is a clearly expressed trend of active movement of labor-intensive industries from more developed to less developed countries, and vice versa, technology-intensive industries - from less developed to more developed ones. It should be noted that of the countries with cheaper labor, the most successful are those that manage to combine the advantages of cheap labor with the selective use of modern scientific and technological achievements.
The modern understanding of the structure of the economy is based on the theory of three sectors, the foundations of which were laid by K. Clark. according to this theory, the national economy consists of primary, secondary and tertiary sectors. The dynamics of the structure was analyzed and substantiated by J. Fourastier and S. Kuznets. this theory proceeds from the hypothesis of a certain sectoral stage in the development of a market economy. It is believed that development proceeds sequentially from a society in which most of the economically active population is engaged in the extraction and production of raw materials (primarily in agriculture), to an industrial, and then post-industrial society (“service” economy), where the bulk of the population is employed in the service sector.
The change in the ratio of sectors is accompanied by structural transformations in industry. There is a point of view that from 1880 to our time five large Kondratiev cycles have passed, differing from each other in the specifics of the main innovation processes. In the third and fourth cycles (since 1900), an industrial society is being formed and developed, and in the third (1900-1950) the innovative base and development impulse are created by the chemical and electrical industries, and in the fourth (1950-1990) - petrochemical and automotive. The basis of the fifth cycle, which began around 1990, is information technology.
Structural change is driven by different but interrelated causes in individual countries. This applies to both sectoral and sectoral profiles. In general, it can be stated that there is a causal relationship between the level of a country's economic development and the sectoral structure of its economy. Structural changes are determined by internal causes associated with the movement of supply or demand due to technological progress, and external causes caused by trends in the world economy.
The theory of three sectors explains fundamental structural changes, first of all, by the different dynamics of demand for the products of industries, which is caused by changes in per capita incomes of the population and an uneven increase in demand for certain goods as incomes grow. In addition, an important factor is the level of labor productivity.
The theory under consideration is not indisputable and may cause certain objections. However, experience confirms its validity, at least in relation to developed countries. Therefore, economists and politicians recognize the existence of certain trends in the development of sectors and industries, i.e. structural changes in the economy, and allocate society with a predominance of the service industry. German President R. Herzog notes: “Sooner or later we will have to get used to the shock of the new industrial revolution. Just as traditional industry replaced agriculture 100 years ago, which was previously the most important sector of the economy, so in modern conditions an ever-increasing share of gross domestic product will fall on the information industry, security environment and the service sector rather than the traditional industry” .
Economic growth on a global scale is associated with a shift in the center of gravity of economic activity from agriculture to industry, and then to the service sector. With the onset of industrialization comes an accelerated growth of industry, as a result of which its share in the national economy increases and, accordingly, the share of agriculture decreases. The service sector is also developing, but relatively slowly.
In Germany around 1800, 80% of the working population was employed in the primary sector, 8 in the secondary and 12% in the tertiary. Since that time, the share of people employed in agriculture began to decrease, and in industry to grow. During 1882-1970, the share of employed in the primary sector decreased from 42 to 9%, in the secondary - increased from 36 to 49%, reaching the highest value compared to other sectors of the economy, in the tertiary - increased from 22 to 42%.
Since the late 1960s, structural shifts have begun to occur in the economies of developed countries, radically changing the relationship between sectors. The process of deindustrialization began and economic growth aimed at the predominant development of the service sector, which began to progress faster than industry. At the same time, industry developed faster than agriculture. In Germany, the process of deindustrialization was clearly manifested in the dynamics of the number of people employed in certain sectors of the economy. Thus, in 1970-1985, the share of those employed in the primary sector decreased from 9 to 5%, in the secondary - from 49 to 41, and in the tertiary - increased from 42 to 53%. In 1994, the number of people employed in the national economy was already distributed as follows: 3.5%, 39.1%, 57.4%. However, the process of deindustrialization did not lead to a drop in industrial production. On the contrary, it increased due to the growth of labor productivity.
As for the distribution of world industrial capacities, in order to most fully characterize the current state of the sectoral structure of the world economy, it is necessary to consider individual groups of countries and their contribution to the world economy from the point of view of the sectoral structure.
The extremely high capacity of the domestic market provides the United States with a unique place in the global economy. The industry of this country consumes about one third of all raw materials mined in the world. The USA has the world's largest market for machinery and equipment. It accounts for over 40% of machine-building products sold in developed countries. Having the most developed mechanical engineering, the USA at the same time became the largest importer of mechanical engineering products. The United States receives more than one quarter of the world's exports of machinery and equipment, purchasing almost all types of machinery. By the beginning of the 1990s, a stable progressive economic structure had developed in the United States, in which the predominant share belongs to the production of services. Their share in GDP is more than 60%, the share of material production - 37% and about 2.5% - agricultural products. The role of the service sector in employment is even more significant: here, in the early 1990s, it accounted for three-quarters of the economically active population. American corporations firmly hold the world leadership in such areas of scientific and technical progress as the production of aircraft and spacecraft, beyond
powerful computers and their software, the production of semiconductors and the latest high-power integrated circuits, the production of laser technology, communications, biotechnology. The US accounts for more than half of the major innovations generated in developed countries. In a sense, the US is the main "incubator" of technical innovation for the whole world. The country continues to be the largest producer of high technology products, or, as it is commonly called, high technology products: their share in the world production of this product was 36% in the early 90s, Japan - 39%, Germany - 9.4%, the EU in consisting of 12 countries - 29%. Another area where Americans hold a very strong position is the processing of accumulated knowledge and the provision of information services. This factor plays a very significant role, since fast and high-quality information support has increasingly determined the efficiency of the entire production apparatus.
In the countries of Western Europe, the transition to new conditions of reproduction was accompanied by a crisis in traditional industries. The protectionist nature of the European Community, protecting many industries (ferrous metallurgy, chemistry, textile industry) from outside competition, contributed to the aging of the economic structure. All this manifested itself in the deepening of structural crises in the above-mentioned industries. The share of Western Europe in the industrial production of the OECD countries fell from 49% in 1970 to 32.2% in 1990. Structural crisis experienced shipbuilding, ferrous metallurgy, textile and coal industries. Industries that were growth drivers, such as automotive, chemicals, and electrical engineering, faced a reduction in domestic demand and changes in the international division of labor. The most dynamic sectors include the electronics industry, in which the production of equipment has been predominantly developed.
vaniya industrial and special purposes, primarily computers. In the past decade, there has been some backlog of Western Europe from the main competitors in the progressiveness of the sectoral structure. High demand products account for 25% of EU manufacturing, about 30% in the US and almost 40% in Japan. Country comparisons of the structure of the manufacturing industry show that engineering and heavy industry have been developed in the leading countries of the region. The share of chemistry is also significant. Many Western European countries are major producers of consumer products. The mining industry occupies a modest place in Western Europe - less than 1% of total GDP (Greece - 4%, Spain - 1.3%). About 30 types of minerals are mined, but only 3-4 of them in quantities significant on a global scale (zinc, bauxite, potash, nickel). Differences in structural indicators for the share of agriculture in the formation of GDP are more noticeable - from 1.5 to 8%. Highly developed countries have almost reached the limit on this indicator (2-3% of GDP). Western Europe accounts for about one-fifth of world agricultural production. The leading manufacturers in this area are France, Germany, Italy, Great Britain. Serious changes have taken place in the fuel and energy balance of Western European countries. There has been a relative reduction in energy consumption, while oil consumption has decreased absolutely. Shifts in the structure of the energy balance are associated with a drop in the share of oil, a significant increase in the share of nuclear energy, and an increase in the role of natural gas. In general, the shifts in the economies of Western European countries are going in one direction - a reduction in the share of material production sectors in GDP and an increase in the share of services. It is this sector that currently largely determines the growth of national production and the dynamics of investment. It accounts for one third of the economically active population. This increases the importance of the Western European countries as a financial center, a center for providing other kinds of services. But despite the same trends, the sectoral structure of Western European countries still has quite significant differences, which is explained by the stability of the monopolistic structures of national economies.
A relatively modest place in world production is occupied by developing countries. The significance of the countries of the "third world" in the planetary economic system is determined by their richest natural and human resources. In the mid-80s, they concentrated 2/3 of the total industrial reserves of 8 types of mineral raw materials, more than 1/3 of such minerals as iron ore, molybdenum, uranium, about 1/4 of the industrial reserves of tungsten, manganese, lead, chromium , zinc. A significant share of developing countries in the world reserves of precious metals and stones. Previously, the participation of developing countries in international economic exchange, in essence, relied on abundant, relatively inexpensive natural raw materials and cheap labor. Both of these factors, although not without difficulties, made it possible to maintain more or less acceptable levels of export for a long time. But due to the decrease in the material and energy intensity of the growth of developed market economies, the role of natural raw materials in international trade has a clear downward trend. Therefore, the lag in the development of new technologies with their opportunities for diversification and improvement of production, the modification of the commodity structure of international trade, accompanying the use of such technologies, significantly weakened the traditional positions of these countries and put most of them in front of a factor of relative displacement from the world market, a decrease in their share in total exports. peace. The decline in growth rates primarily affected the industry. In 1980-1989, compared with 1965-1980, the average annual growth rate of industrial production declined in all regions of the developing world except South Asia. The average annual growth rate of agricultural production in the last decade, in comparison with 1965-1989, on the contrary, has slightly increased. But no matter how the possible consequences of these processes are assessed by experts, their overall results, recorded by international statistics, undeniably indicate that in developed countries there is an increase in the industrial component in the sectoral structure (Table 1).
Table 1.
The structure of industrial exports of developing countries (%).
In the early 1980s, a new structural and economic policy was developed in the People's Republic of China, which planned to ensure a balanced development of industry and agriculture. As a result of this process, a change in priorities has led to a change in the ratio of agriculture, heavy and light industry. The volume of gross industrial output in the 1980s increased by an average of 12%, and the volume of gross agricultural output by 8.5%. In industrial production, the role of light industry has increased: the share of heavy industry in the growth of gross industrial output in 1981-1991 was 43-45%, while the share of light industry was 55-57%. Currently, the Chinese economy is characterized by a chronic backlog of energy and transport. The main branches of the manufacturing complex of the Chinese heavy industry are mechanical engineering and metalworking, however, in general, the range of Chinese engineering products is still limited compared to
industrialized countries, and does not reach the world level. In second place in terms of production is the textile industry. In 1992, the production of fabrics amounted to 19.3 billion rubles. One of the most dynamic sectors of the Chinese industry is the electronics industry. By 1990, the output of electronic products increased by 6.5 times compared to 1982, the share of electronics was 5%, which is not much lower than in Japan. The chemical industry is developing at high rates, the average annual growth rate of which is 14.5%. The agricultural sector is currently dominated by trends towards the intensification of production. A processing industry has developed. All this allowed the PRC to achieve high quantitative indicators and become one of the agriculturally developed countries.
The main branch of the economy of most countries in Tropical Africa is agriculture, designed to provide food for the population and serve as a raw material base for the development of the manufacturing industry. It employs the predominant part of the region's able-bodied population and creates the bulk of the total national income. In many states of Tropical Africa, agriculture occupies a leading place in exports, providing a significant part of foreign exchange earnings. In the last decade, an alarming picture has been observed with the growth rates of industrial production, which allows us to speak about the actual deindustrialization of the region. If in 1965-1980 they (on average per year) amounted to 7.5%, then in the 80s only 0.7%, a drop in growth rates took place in the 80s both in the extractive and manufacturing industries. For a number of reasons, a special role in ensuring the socio-economic development of the region belongs to the mining industry, but even this production is reduced by 2% annually. Feature development of the countries of Tropical Africa - the weak development of the manufacturing industry. Only in a very small group of countries (Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sinegal) does its share in GDP reach or exceed 20%.
There is no other industrialized country in the world like Japan, which invests so much in renovation and expansion production capacity and in the renewal of fixed capital. And always taking into account future technologies and competitors. The most common position to explain the Japanese economic leap was the influence of the scientific and technological revolution - the widespread introduction of electronic computers, informatization of control systems, automation of technological processes and design. Today, this list can be supplemented by the use of achievements in biotechnology and optoelectronics, the use of video technologies and heavy-duty synthetic substitutes (ceramics), robotization of conveyor lines, etc. All this confirms the conclusion about the huge progress in the field of scientific and technical research and development at the worldwide technological revolution. The Japanese economy appears to us as an ordered multi-level system of integration. Even the average annual growth rate of industrial production in developed countries in Japan is much higher and more stable than in other countries (Table 2).
In general, the experience of developed countries clearly shows what inexhaustible opportunities the market economy and the structure of industries provide not just for overcoming the crisis, but for rapid economic growth, a radical improvement in the living situation of the population, and for the modernization of industry, and for the creation of new industries. The development of new industries requires support from the state of industry. The openness of the national economy, which implies the acceptance of advanced technologies and quality standards, the correct orientation in world markets and integration in the system of the international division of labor is the most important prerequisite for rapid progress. Therefore, the restoration and strengthening of competitiveness in the field of new technologies should be declared the central task of the federal government of any country.
Dynamics of industrial production in developed countries
(% increase or decrease from the previous year)
2.3. Scientific and technological progress as the main factor
placement of branches of the world economy
Today, in industrially and technologically developed countries, when evaluating the results of economic activity, it is not the scale of manufactured products that comes to the fore, but its quality and structure, variability in relation to constantly changing demand. The latter is determined to a decisive extent by the level of scientific and technological development and the competitiveness of production. The level of scientific and technological development largely depends on the costs of research and development, the saturation of the economy with scientists, inventors, engineers, activists of the innovation process, and the share of the high-tech sector in the industrial structure of industrial production.
According to the latest data published in the West, the United States spends more money on R&D than Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy combined. In practice, the United States accounts for about 50% of the R&D costs of the entire capitalist world. However, the share of these costs in GDP in the US is slightly lower than in Japan and Germany.
Nevertheless, the US and Western Europe are losing their relative positions in the production of high-tech products. The share of the United States in the world market for these products in 1980 was 40%, in 1988 - 37%, the share of the EU countries, respectively, 35 and 31%, and the share of Japan during this time increased significantly: from 18 to 27%. Japan still has the world's largest trade surplus in high-tech products.
The ever-increasing competition from trade rivals in the world market is forcing countries to reorient their resources from the production of traditional products to the production of the most complex, high-tech products, to move from a labor-intensive to a science-intensive economic profile. The share of the high-tech sector in US manufacturing products increased from 20% in 1980 to 29% in 1988; in Western Europe, respectively, from 16% to 21%. But the biggest shift in this regard was made by Japan: it managed to reach the American share of the high-tech sector in 1984, and in 1987 surpass the USA.
High-tech industries are based on the latest achievements of science and technology and are highly knowledge-intensive, they require high capital and wage intensity (Table 3).
All of the above is strikingly different from the situation with scientific and technological progress in Russia. The share of R&D costs in Russian GDP is about 1.5%.
Capital investment and wages
by US manufacturing industry in 1988
(in dollars)
The development of the scientific and technological revolution has a focal character, since it is mainly concentrated in the economically advanced countries. First of all, because spending on R&D increases the capital intensity of production. The growth of capital intensity creates an investment barrier to the production of new goods. And as a consequence, the use of microelectronics and robotics, due to their labor-saving effect, undermines the competitiveness of the industrial exports of developing countries, since it relies on the cheapness of local labor, since most developing countries are at different stages of the industrial revolution.
In general, in recent decades, scientific and technological progress is mainly manifested in the so-called functional shifts within the existing industry and production structure (with the exception of the production of personal computers). Markets are dominated not by new products, but by improved, not new technologies, but by streamlining existing products based on innovation. The conducted studies show that 8% of products that appeared in the world markets in the late 70s are fundamentally new in their properties and 12% are new in their manufacturing technology. The rest of the main part falls on improving or pseudo-innovations, which affects the change in the industry structure.
Conclusion
Summarizing the above, we can definitely conclude that in the world economy there is a tendency to reduce the share of primary industries and agriculture, the technical modernization of industry and the rapid growth of service industries. This is confirmed by the fact that the decrease in the number of employed occurs mainly due to traditional industries with a high labor intensity of production (food, textile, clothing, leather), as well as due to capital-intensive industries (in particular, metallurgy), and an increase in the number of employees - in the electrical industry and instrumentation.
All the same, economic growth on a global scale is associated with a shift in the center of gravity of economic activity from agriculture to industry, and then to the service sector. There is an accelerated growth of industry, as a result of which its share in the national economy increases and, accordingly, the share of agriculture decreases. The service sector is also developing, but relatively slowly. But still, just as traditional industry replaced agriculture 100 years ago, which was once the most important branch of the economy, so in modern conditions an ever-increasing share of gross domestic product is accounted for by the information industry, environmental protection and the service sector, and not by traditional industry.
As for the distribution of world industrial capacities, developed countries still specialize in technically complex and science-intensive industries, relying on product quality and highly skilled workers. The advantages in the production of the simplest labor-intensive products, agriculture and the supply of raw materials can be retained by countries with a lower level of scientific and technological progress and cheap labor - developing and economically backward countries. Although it should be borne in mind that developing countries are increasingly beginning to specialize in high-tech products. Therefore, at the moment there is a clearly expressed trend of active movement of labor-intensive industries from more developed to less developed countries, and vice versa, technology-intensive industries - from less developed to more developed ones.
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