The northern regions of Europe began to be inhabited by people already from the 10th-9th centuries BC. The early history of Norway is associated mainly with the settlement of the Scandinavian Peninsula by various Germanic tribes. In Western Europe they were called Normans or Vikings.
VIII-IX centuries in Norway fall on the Viking Age, which had a huge impact on the military and political traditions of the country. The ancient Norwegians are a nation of sailors and discoverers. Thanks to their success in shipbuilding and navigation, they discovered the Shetland, Orkney, Hebrides, Faroe Islands, the Isle of Man, Iceland, Greenland, and also reached the shores of North America (they called it Vinland) long before Columbus. The objects of Norwegian colonization also became the British Isles and the north of France, and there the Scandinavians were gradually assimilated by the local population, converted to Christianity and began to lead a settled way of life.
In the 8th-9th centuries, a large number of small proto-state formations existed on the territory of modern Norway. Due to geographical and topographic features, the process of unification of the Norwegian lands was quite lengthy and took about two centuries. In 882, King Harald the Fair-Haired won an important victory in the battle of Hafrsfjord, which actually marked the beginning of the unification of the Norwegian lands around the Viken region. The unification process ended by the middle of the 11th century. The Icelandic and Norwegian sagas name Olaf the Holy (1015-1028) as the first king to rule all of Norway. In the years 1028-1035, Norway was under the control of Denmark.
During the reign of kings Hakon the Educator Æthelstan (933-959), Olaf Tryggvason (955-999) and Olaf Haraldson the Holy (1015-1028), Norway adopts Christianity, and the Viking raids on the rest of Europe gradually stop. Norway reached its maximum territorial gains by 1265, after which their reduction began. The Hebrides and the Isle of Man were ceded by Norway to Scotland in 1266, and Orkney and Shetland in 1468. Iceland and the Faroe Islands were ceded by Norway to Denmark in 1814.
The Norwegian society of the Middle Ages differed in its structure from other European countries in that the vast majority of the population were free landowners - bonds, who, together with the nobility, decided all administrative and political issues at regional legislative assemblies - tings, which gathered all free people in the district, regardless from social status. In the middle of the 10th century, an interregional body, the Lagting, was formed, which united representatives of different regions.
The Middle Ages in Norway were marked by long internecine wars that lasted with brief interruptions for about 100 years (from 1130 to 1227), a gradual increase in the power of the monarch, as well as the development of cities and trade and economic relations. Already by the beginning of the 13th century, Norway had developed legislation: King Magnus the Corrector of Laws (1263-1280) codified local laws and brought them together in 1274 into the Code, which determined the development of the country's legal system for about 400 years ahead.
From 1319-1320 until 1536, a peculiar political institution, the Riksrod, functioned in Norway, which represented the interests of the elite and acted on behalf of the state. It consisted of 20-30 members and served as a collective adviser to the monarch. Unlike Denmark and Sweden, in Norway, royal power was hereditary, so Riksrod's power was more limited than that of a similar Danish body.
In the 14th century, a demographic crisis broke out in Norway due to a plague epidemic, which caused desolation in agriculture. According to historians, the plague claimed 40-50% of the country's population. By that time, the largest landowner in the country was the church, which controlled 40% of the land (50% after 1350). All this led to the impoverishment of the population and weakened the power of the king. The rise of the Hanseatic League, which enjoyed numerous benefits in trade, intensified the decline of Norway's foreign trade.
Useful information about Norway More than any other country, Norway is a land of contrasts. Summer here is very unlike autumn, autumn - winter, and winter - spring. In Norway, you can find the most diverse landscapes and contrasts that differ from each other.The territory of Norway is so large, and the population is so small, that there is a unique opportunity to relax alone with nature. Far from industrial pollution and the noise of big cities, you can gain new strength surrounded by virgin nature. Wherever you are, nature is always around you. Dine at the city's street restaurant before cycling through the forest or taking a dip in the sea.
Many thousands of years ago, a huge layer of ice covered Norway. The glacier settled in lakes, at the bottom of rivers and deepened steep valleys that stretched towards the sea. The glacier advanced and retreated 5, 10 or perhaps even 20 times before finally retreating 14,000 years ago. As a memory of itself, the glacier left deep valleys that filled the sea, and magnificent fjords, which many consider the soul of Norway.
The Vikings, among others, founded their settlements here and used the fjords and small bays as the main means of communication during their campaigns. Today, the fjords are more famous for their spectacular scenery than for the Vikings. Their uniqueness is that people still live here. Today, high up in the hills, you can find working farms idyllically attached to the mountain slopes.
Fjords are present throughout the Norwegian coastline- from the Oslofjord to the Varangerfjord. Each of them is beautiful in its own way. Nevertheless, the most famous fjords in the whole world are located in the west of Norway. Some of the largest and most powerful waterfalls are also found in this part of Norway. They form on the edges of cliffs, high above your head and cascade into the emerald green water of the fjords. Equally high is the rock "Church Pulpit" (Prekestolen) - a mountain shelf that rises 600 meters above Lysefjord in Rogaland.
Norway is a long and narrow country with a coast that is as beautiful, amazing and diverse as the rest of its territory. Wherever you are, the sea is always near you. It is not surprising, therefore, that the Norwegians are such experienced and skillful seafarers. For a long time, the sea was the only way connecting the coastal regions of Norway - with its coastline extended for many thousands of kilometers.
Norway. The beginning of the story
On one of the days of the last third of the IX century. the North Norwegian chieftain Ottar visited King Alfred of England. He told the king about his homeland and his wanderings. Alfred ordered the story to be written down (this record in Old English has survived to this day).
Ottar said that he lives "to the north of all the other Normans" - it is now believed that his settlement was somewhere in the Malangen region in South Troms. From there he sailed south past Nordmanna land (Land of the Normans) to Skiringssal, a port in South Vestfold. Ottar called the Land of the Normans Nordweg - "northern path" or "northern region". It is from this word that modern name"Norway" (Noreg, Norge), Ottar, we owe the first known story about Norway and the Norwegians.
Ottar describes Norway as a country with a very extended territory. To the north was the Land of the Finns, or Sami, later called Finnmark, and to the south, Denamearc (Denmark), which lay on the port side when she sailed from Skiringsal to the port of Hedeby at the base of the Jutland peninsula. This suggests that at that time Denmark included the current western coast of Sweden up to Svinesund in the north, and possibly further. To the east of Norway, according to Ottar, was the Land of the Swedes - Svealand (Sweoland), and to the north of it, around the Gulf of Bothnia - Cwena land, the Land of the West Finnish Kvens. Ottar did not know about any permanent settlements to the north and east of his native places up to the Land of Finnish-speaking Bjarmians near the White Sea. In Finnmark and on the Kola Peninsula, the Saami tribes roamed - hunters and fishermen. They often traveled to the plateaus inland, far south of Finnmark.
Ottar said that he was the leader of one of the tribes in his homeland, in Halogalanna (the ancient name of Norway north of Trønnelag), although his farm looked modest by English standards: “no more than” 10 cows, 20 sheep and 20 pigs, as well as a small plot of arable land, which he cultivated with a plow pulled by horses. The main source of his wealth was hunting, fishing, whale fighting and the tribute paid to him by the Finns and Sami. One day he traveled north to see how far his country stretched and to get walrus tusks and skins. For fifteen days, Ottar sailed along Finnmark and the Kola Peninsula to the Land of the Bjarms near the western bay of the White Sea. The voyage south to Skiringssal took over a month, although the wind was favorable as the ship anchored for the night. It took five days to get from there to Hedeby.
This is how Norway and the Norwegians appear on the historical stage, standing out against the general background of Northern Europe - a people with its own territory, stretching from South Troms to the Oslo Fjord, or Vik, as it was then called.
People settled in Norway long before Ottar. Eleven - twelve thousand years ago, when the last glacial period and the ice receded, hunters and fishermen began to settle along the Norwegian coast. Around 4000 BC large and small tribes already roamed the country. By the same time, the beginning of the cultivation of the land, but only in the extreme south. On the western and northern coasts, pastoralism spread fairly quickly, but arable farming did not take root very soon. However, having become a habitual activity, it made it possible to feed more people than raising livestock, and to tie them more closely to a certain territory. What distinguished these people from "pure" hunters was the possession of real property - they had livestock and cultivated land. There were more settlements, they acquired a permanent character and a hierarchical structure.
By the end of the Late Stone Age, around 1500 BC, agriculture had long been the main occupation of the inhabitants of Southern Norway, more important than hunting and fishing. In the north, by contrast, hunting and fishing continued to play a primary role. But as agriculture spread "up" the coast as far as South Troms, a cultural demarcation took place between the inhabitants of these territories and the hunters and fishers of the Far North. By the time of Ottar in northern Norway, the Normans and the Sami had developed two distinct cultures, and it can be assumed, although there is no evidence for this, that the culture of hunters and fishermen in its purest form was only Sami from the end of the Stone Age.
We do not know how long ago the Normans settled the rest of Norway and what the words "Norman" and "Norwegian" mean. The prerequisite for the emergence of the Norwegian folk community was the language spoken by the "northern people". Runic inscriptions testify that starting from about 200 AD. there was a single northern European language, from which the current national languages of the countries of Northern Europe subsequently developed. This basic northern European "dialect" probably arose no later than the beginning of the Christian era. In Ottar's time, dialects had already emerged in Norway that differed from those that had spread in the south and east of Scandinavia; it is possible that such a situation has developed much earlier.
The Normans were also bound by a common religion. Norwegian toponymy testifies that they worshiped the same deities for several centuries. The construction of wooden ships, a technology invented in the Iron Age, made it possible to make regular voyages along the entire Norwegian coast. It is very likely that it was this coastal route that gave the country its name: the "northern route", or Norway. In any case, together with land routes, it united the country. Since ancient times, trade has been carried out along these routes, smoothing out the differences between the economies of individual regions of the country and helping to strengthen ties with overseas lands. In parallel with the economic ones, social and cultural ties were also established.
It is safe to say that in this way, by the time of Ottar, Norway became Norway. However, the language and religion hardly sharply distinguished the Norwegians from the rest of the Scandinavians. But still, the Swedes and Norwegians in the east were separated by high plateaus and dense forests, and perhaps it was these geographical features, if you look at them from the point of view of the Danes, that is, from the south, and called the names "Norway" and "Norwegians" to life. This suggests that in the eyes of their neighbors, the Norwegians were somehow different from the rest. And although it was still far from the creation of a real society, they, apparently, had a certain ethnic and cultural identity.
In the time of Ottar, the main unit of the settlement was a kind of manor or farmstead, called a gard (gard, gard). It consisted of permanent dwellings and livestock quarters located close to each other within a fenced or otherwise designated area of cultivated land. The surrounding area - forest, pastures, etc. - was less clearly defined. The estates had their own names dating back to the early Roman Iron Age (c. 0-400 AD).
Probably, in many agricultural settlements, which at that time and in subsequent centuries received their names, which we define as estates, a large patriarchal family lived. It not only represented a socio-economic community, but was also united by the cult of ancestor worship. In addition, ancestral ties were an essential element in the emerging broader organization of society.
We have no proof of all this, and, as we shall see later, the then low life expectancy left little chance for the emergence of vertically extended families, numbering two or more generations of adults. Therefore, the need for labor force for extensive farming (which formed the basis of larger agricultural settlements) could hardly be satisfied by a purely related community. So we can justifiably talk about the presence of a sufficient number of dependent agricultural workers on the estate, and, consequently, about a less egalitarian social structure settlements than the "big family" thesis suggests. Many of these workers may have been trells, or slaves, as reflected in some of the ancient names of the estates.
The earliest Norwegian legal texts - the "regional laws", which give an idea of the state of affairs in the 12th century - paint a picture of a society where kinship was inherited through both male and female lines. Most likely in the early Iron Age the situation was different. Such a "two-sided" system, which recognized a person's belonging to both the paternal and maternal lines, did not contribute to the formation of clearly structured tribal communities. Nevertheless, kinship played an important social role. It provided everyone with security and protection, and also united individuals and families into more large groups. The rights of such a community to economic resources were to some extent stronger than the rights of the individual or family, which was later expressed in the right of the odal (odelsrett). They were also of decisive importance in other areas - legal, political, religious. However, this does not mean that during the Iron Age (that is, until about 1050) the society was tribal, although such statements are often found. After all, if this is so, the ancestral ties should have been powerful enough to subdue other elements of the social order, and this was hardly the case in reality.
Toponymic and archeological data suggest that the settlements (bygder), which consisted of several family estates, represented larger social associations connected by common religious, legal and defensive interests. It also seems that such an organization to some extent extended to wider areas. In this case, of course, something more than ancestral ties was required.
The Gothic chronicler Jordanes mentions several peoples who inhabited Scandinavia (about 550 AD). As far as Norway is concerned, we can with a high degree of probability single out among the distorted Latinized names such "peoples" as Ranrikings, Raumerikings, Grens, Egdys, Rugs and Chords. Of certain significance is the fact that the first two peoples are associated with their own territories and "kingdoms" (riker, or riks). In addition to Ranriki (the area owned by the Rens, the current Bohuslen) and Raumariki (the territories of the Raums), in modern toponyms, several more such counties (regions of residence of a particular “people”) can be traced: Hedmark, Hadeland, Ringerike, Grenland (Land of the Grens), Telemark, Rogaland (Land of the Rugavs), Hordaland (Land of the Chords), Emtlann and Halogalann. The association of a people's name with a territory suggests, at least in some cases, the existence of an organized community. For example, both toponymy and archaeological finds provide indirect evidence of the existence in prehistoric times of a single religious and defensive organization in Raumariki (Country of Raums).
Some researchers argue that in some areas of the country, especially in Eastern Norway and in the interior of Trønnelag, territorial organization arose primarily from the need for association among peasants who had more or less equal social status and lived in hereditary estates. But much indicates that such an organization everywhere depended on the power of the leaders and had a more pronounced aristocratic character. It is rather about the institution of leaders - both political and religious leaders, with whom people were connected by ties of personal loyalty.
Most likely, these chieftain-led communities were constantly contesting territory and resources with each other; they could quickly change both their rulers and their "base" territory. Geographically, the conditions for such social organization existed along the entire Norwegian coast, with natural centers in areas suitable for agriculture or in those places where big rivers and fjords intersected with coastal shipping lanes. The leader of the central region sought to take possession of the coast on both sides of the fjord, as well as inland lands along the banks of the rivers to the very mountains. Along the full-flowing Estlanna rivers with their numerous tributaries, where the distance from the coast to the mountains was significant or where large lakes and vast agricultural areas extended far into the interior of the country, there was enough space for several territorial communities. The lands along the large fjords of Vestland were also suitable for associations, but here the rugged terrain created favorable conditions for smaller social units. In Central Norway, numerous large agricultural areas were connected by the Trondheimsfjord. To the north, catching and fishing played a leading role. At the same time, the North Norwegian leaders had great opportunities to subjugate the Saami or simply to trade with them. Ottar belonged to such leaders.
In all likelihood, the natural conditions of Norway contributed to the development at an early stage of history of more or less large regional communities headed by leaders. In this way, several counties could unite. The tendency towards expansion inherent in these communities contributed to the creation of ever larger social associations.
The nature of the power of the leaders can be judged quite definitely in the Viking Age (c. 800-1050). Several factors allow explaining the North European overseas expansion of that time. The Vikings followed traditional trade routes where they knew their riches awaited. Often their goal was robbery, but peaceful trade also took place, as can be seen from the example of Ottar. Internal political turmoil could also contribute to the aggressive aspirations of the Vikings - this is exactly what the Icelandic chroniclers of the 11th-12th centuries thought, but, in all likelihood, the rapid population growth and, as a result, the increased burden on Natural resources. This situation inevitably gave rise to a thirst for adventure and the need to search for new lands, which explains the fact that many Vikings created peasant settlements in the conquered territories.
The campaigns of the Vikings can only be understood on the basis of the hierarchy of society that existed at that time, which assumed the presence of a wealthy layer - the "aristocracy". Most likely, only chieftains - chiefs and "big people" (stortepp) could prepare ships, equipment and attract the manpower necessary for such travels. As far as one can judge, many of those who went on a campaign with the leaders, and in their homeland, were with them in dependent, patronal-client relationships. Gradually, as the campaigns grew in scope, their own military leaders emerged from among the Vikings. The most influential of them managed to establish kingdoms both in Norway and abroad. The acquisition of the wealth of the Vikings through robbery and trade became an effective means of "acquiring supporters", increasing power and prestige within the social order, where the exchange of gifts was one of the ways to establish ties between people.
The first Viking campaigns known to us at the end of the 8th century. were nothing more than predatory raids on the British Isles. The migration of the Normans to Shetland and Orkney probably also began no later than this period and led to the complete domination of the Vikings over the peoples of the conquered archipelagos. The Faroe Islands and Iceland to the north were colonized partly from Norway itself, and partly from the Norman territories farther from the continent to the south of them. Norman settlements appeared in Iceland at the end of the 9th century, and from there, about 100 years later, migrants reached Greenland. They also reached North America (Vinland), but did not establish permanent settlements there.
During the ninth century the Normans moved from predatory raids on the British Isles to the colonization of Northern Scotland, the Hebrides, about. Maine and Ireland. After some time, Norman kingdoms were founded with centers in Dublin and on about. Maine. At the beginning of the X century. Norman migrants from Ireland settled in North West England. From there they reached Northumberland and Yorkshire, and for some time kings of Norman origin ruled over these areas from their capital at York. However, the Viking raids on East Anglia, continental Western Europe and the Mediterranean were primarily attended by residents of Danish lands, and the "throw" through the Baltic and further along the Russian rivers to the Black and Caspian Seas was mainly carried out by people from the Swedish regions.
The Scandinavians had an impact on those areas where they created numerous settlements and founded kingdoms and counties. At the same time, it was during the Viking Age that Scandinavia truly “opened up” to Europe. The sprouts of Christianity brought from Europe eventually led to a cultural reorientation. It was also important that the Scandinavians got acquainted with more complex forms abroad. political organization society - princely or royal rule. Among other things, they also realized the role of urban centers.
The last two or three decades of the ninth century were not only the time of Ottar's campaigns and the beginning of the Norman settlement of Iceland. In the same period, the famous battle of Havrsfjord took place in Rogaland. According to the skaldic poetry of the time, King Harald Halfdanarson (later nicknamed Fair-Haired) won a victory here, which, according to the poetic text, brought him power over Rogaland, and possibly over Agder. Icelandic and Norwegian authors of sagas and chronicles since the 12th century. they call him the first king who ruled all of Norway. And Snorri Sturluson, in the set of sagas about kings (kings), “The Circle of the Earth” (“Heimskringla”), dating back to about 1230, notes that Harald conquered one region after another until he won a decisive victory at Havrsfjord.
The history of the unification of Norway is told by Snorri much later than the events he describes. But there are probably still reasons why Harald left a more lasting mark on history than previous Norwegian warlords. It seems that the center of the kingdom of Harald and the dominions of his successors was in the southwest of the country, from where their power extended northward, including Hordaland. Here, along the coastal sea route, royal estates were located - temporary places of residence of the king and his hird, or squad. They traveled from estate to estate, accepting treats from local residents who held joint feasts, the so-called "weizls", as well as other gifts, that is, they lived off various taxes from the local population and natural products that the land provided. This was the only way to effectively exercise royal power until a permanent local administration arose.
Of course, Harald's power at times extended to other areas of the country. However, it is not clear, and it is unlikely that we will ever know, how strongly his presence was felt there. The traditional view that Harald belonged to the dynasty of the kings of Uppland (Estland's inner highlands) is highly controversial. Given the condition of the roads and instruments of power, and the level of political organization of the time, it is hard to believe that he exercised permanent, direct control far beyond the central part of the kingdom. If it can be said that he ruled other regions of the country, then this most likely happened through the intermediary of petty independent leaders.
Harald Fairhair may be considered the first ruler to take an important step towards the unification of Norway, but not the only great "collector of the kingdom". The unification of the kingdom is a long process during which the Norwegian territory came under the rule of one royal family and was organized as a political unit.
The unification of Norway was part of a deeper change. It went in parallel with pan-European events that led to the formation of a system of small and medium-sized states based on territorial unity under royal or princely authority. Thus, in Scandinavia, the unification of Denmark and Sweden took place around the same period as Norway.
The processes taking place in Scandinavia had serious consequences for the rest of Europe, and vice versa. Viking raids in some lands led to the necessary consolidation of power for defense. In turn, the Scandinavians received useful lessons in the field of political organization from those foreigners whom they sought to subdue. In addition, in overseas campaigns, hedings and other noble Vikings enriched themselves and honed their military skills - both of which came in handy when they returned home. The power of some of the first Norwegian kings was based on their own experience and wealth, obtained during the "Viking past".
Thus, the three Scandinavian kingdoms were formed under the influence of similar circumstances. In the course of the struggle for political leadership, each of the warring parties often turned to neighboring kingdoms for help. In addition, the "gatherers of kingdoms" competed to some extent for possession of territories. In the Viking Age, the Danish conquering kings held the upper hand. They had territorial claims to both Norwegian and Swedish lands and influenced the political development of both countries.
The unification of Norway was a military-political process that took more than three hundred years to complete. In general terms, it is divided into two stages. We can seriously talk about the beginning of the first stage in relation to the period of the reign of Harald the Fair-Haired. Until the middle of the XI century. the kingdom centered on the west coast, with varying success, tried to control the near and far regions of the country. King Olav Haraldsson the Fat (after his death, canonized as Olaf the Saint), who apparently ruled from 1015-1028, was the first to directly subjugate most of the country. However, his reign was only an episode in the period when the Danish kings had power over various, larger or smaller, regions of Norway, primarily over Vik, the region of the Oslofjord closest to Denmark.
Only after the death of King Knut the Mighty in 1035 and the collapse of the North Sea empire of the Danes did the Norwegian kings manage to establish permanent control over the main part of Norway. In the XI century. under kings Magnus Olavsson and Harald Sigurdarson (Severe Ruler), Norway for some time led an offensive against its neighbors. In the south, they increased their possessions from Ranriki up to the river. Göta-Elv; at the same time, Harald the Severe Ruler brought to an end the plan of his half-brother Olaf Haraldsson, subjugating the entire kingdom, including the rich agricultural regions of Trønnelag and Uppland (Estlann's interior).
A period of relative political stability and peace followed. But sometimes two or more kings ruled simultaneously in Norway, based on centers of power in different areas of the country - clear evidence that its political unification was far from complete. After the death in 1130 of King Sigurd the Crusader, the claims of his son Magnus to the role of sole ruler turned into a struggle for the throne. It continued for the next hundred years and later became known as the "civil wars".
The civil wars constituted the second and final stage of the unification process. They ended with the victory of the "Birkebeiner" kingdom, founded by Sverrir and his descendants, and the establishment of their autocracy throughout the country. Trønnelag was originally the center of this kingdom. The victory over Magnus Erlingsson allowed Sverrir in the 1180s. master Westlann. In the final period of his reign and the first years after his death (1202), there was a conflict between the Birkebeiners ("bast shoes") and Baglers ("churchmen"), primarily for control over Estlann. Finally, in the 1220s under Hakon Hakonarson, the Birkebeiners took possession of this area, which put an end to the struggle to unite the Norwegian territory under the rule of one king.
All that remained now was to complete the Norman colonization of the northeastern lands along the coast of Finnmark. It took place during the High and Late Middle Ages. From the time of Sverrir, Jämtland was also under the rule of the Norwegian crown. But its population, associated with the parishes located in Sweden, was never fully incorporated into the Norwegian community. To the south, the kingdom extended to the mouth of the river. Göta-Elv; it was at this point that the possessions of the three medieval kingdoms of Scandinavia converged.
Initially, the national monarchy was established through conquest. The realms of the first kings were united mainly under their personal and sometimes short-lived authority. The authority they wielded had more to do with control over subordinate populations than over territory as such. And power was largely built on the personality of a particular monarch and his energy. He secured support for himself with gifts and good deeds, as well as punishing enemies and troublemakers. At that time, there was still no permanent administrative apparatus that would maintain stability in the state after the death of the conquering king.
The territorial unification of the country was slow due to the long process of forming a socio-political organization and an ideology associated with it, capable of soldering the kingdom together and to a certain extent independent of the personality of the king. This organizational process of unification really began only in the middle of the 12th century. Nevertheless, already at its first stage, some important steps were taken in the struggle for the assembly of the state.
The creation of a single kingdom, covering the entire territory of the country, largely depended on the relationship between the king and the secular aristocracy. The theme of the conflict between the king and the "great people" never disappeared from skaldic poetry and sagas. Nevertheless, the formation of the Norwegian nobility, with influence at the local and regional levels, was a necessary prerequisite for the unification of the kingdom. In order to extend power beyond their traditional domains, Harald Fairhair and his immediate successors had to ally with the leaders and "big people" of those lands that were not subject to the king. By binding such people to himself through interdependent relationships, the king forced them to exercise official power on his behalf and provide military assistance in exchange for a share in the royal income and royal patronage. But such an administrative structure was always a double-edged sword: the headings "cooperated" with the king only as long as it was in their own interests.
As for Olav Haraldsson (Saint), he pursued a more thoughtful policy of subjugating the old nobility. One way was to appoint local hevdings as managers of royal estates (appepp), also endowed with official powers. Another way was to win the support of the local " big people as a counterbalance to the power of the heading aristocrats. In the time of Olaf, and possibly even earlier, the monarchy sought to strengthen ties with the hevdings and other "big people", appointing them as landmen, who received royal lands or estates in exchange for an oath of vassalage and royal service. However, Olav Haraldsson did not manage to "tame" the hevding-aristocrats. Ultimately, he failed to defend his power in the fight against the King of Denmark and England, Knut the Mighty, who entered into an alliance with those Norwegian "big people", whose influence Olav limited. But his son Magnus and half-brother Harald Sigurdarson destroyed or expelled from the country the most recalcitrant representatives of the old hevdings. The first stage of the struggle for territorial unification ended when some of the "big people" were destroyed, and the rest were tied to the king with the status of landmans.
The relationship of the king with the church and the clergy developed much more successfully than with the secular aristocracy. During the Viking Age, thanks to contacts with Europe, Christianity quickly spread in the coastal regions of Norway. But it was kings like Hakon Æthelstan's Disciple (adopted son of King Æthelstan of Wessex), Olaf Tryggvason, and Olaf Haraldsson who Christianized most of the population, decisively eradicated pagan cults, and introduced the first elements of church organization.
The missionary church was led by a king. He also built the first cathedrals and secured their property. Royal offerings also laid the foundation for church possessions, which subsequently increased significantly. Missionary bishops were members of the hird, or royal retinue; they were still appointed by the king, even when, starting from the reign of Olaf the Quiet (1066-93), they had permanent residences - in Nidaros (the name of Trondheim as a religious center), Bergen and, probably a little later - in Oslo.
The missionary kings were converted to Christianity during their visits to overseas countries, where they also learned the system of interaction between the monarchy and the church, which, naturally, they sought to transfer to Norway. Obviously, it was not only for religious reasons. The new religion could serve to destroy the old pagan social organization that opposed the king. This is exactly what happened in Trønnelag and Uppland (South and Central Norway). Here, the unification of the country, along with the adoption of Christianity, seems to have led to the confiscation of the possessions of the wealthy rural nobility, who worshiped pagan gods, and the transfer of no small part of their property to the church.
Conversion to Christianity everywhere resulted in the reorganization of local societies and their subordination to royal power. Gradually the whole country was covered with a network of churches, more and more controlled by the bishops. As a result, a church apparatus was created, designed to become the first mechanism for unifying the social system on a national scale. Through this apparatus, a single religious doctrine was spread, the main provisions of which were rooted in the minds of most people. Rules for the observance of Christian rites were adopted, creating a common pattern of behavior.
As patron and head of the church, the king simultaneously gained power and rose above society. Among the clergy, he found people like no other suitable for the role of his advisers and assistants. They knew how to read and write, maintained close contacts with other countries, and therefore were familiar with a more advanced organization of society. In a broad sense, the clergy defended the cause of the king before the people. Christian doctrine easily mobilized itself in support of the more stable, secular organization of society that royal power aspired to.
Even though the aristocracy and the clergy played a major role in the creation of a unified kingdom, Norwegian society was a peasant (bond society) and continued to be so throughout the Middle Ages. Any official power could be formed only with the support of public opinion. The need for bonds at least in relative peace and tranquility, legal and political stability was an important feature of the political and administrative development of the country. This need was met by the king as a guarantor of the observance of laws and a military leader. Thus, he assumed social functions that created the conditions for the preservation and support of the monarchy as an institution. The skaldic poetry of that time extols the first kings - Harald the Fair-Haired, Hakon the Pupil of Æthelstan and Olaf Haraldsson - for their harsh persecution of thieves and rapists; the last two are also sung as creators and keepers of laws. Maintaining the rule of law eventually began to generate income in the form of fines and confiscations; gradually developed and the administrative-legal apparatus, which became the stronghold of royal power.
As a military leader, the king concluded agreements with bonds from different regions of the country for constant economic and military assistance in times of crisis. It was in this way that the leidang, or naval militia, was formed - a conscription army led by the king, for whom the bonds together equipped warships, supplied soldiers, food and weapons. In the middle of the 10th century, during the reign of Hakon the Pupil of Æthelstan, such an army was created in Vestlann and, most likely, in Trennelag. Later, with the spread of royal power, it appeared in other coastal areas.
Of great importance for the development of relations between the king and the peasantry was the popular assembly, or ting. General meetings of all free people (Althingi) probably originated in prehistoric times; they settled disputes, resolved economic and some political issues of common interest. Later, in the Middle Ages, such collections were preserved as local authorities both in cities and in rural areas. Some of them took on special significance because they had the power to proclaim a king: the pretender was recognized as king in a legal ceremony of exchange of obligations between him and the participants. Only the king, proclaimed at the Things, enjoyed authority, so all pretenders to the throne aspired to such recognition.
In the sources relating to the first stage of the territorial unification, the Lagtings are mentioned for the first time. These collections occupied a higher position than the ancient Althingi, since they covered the population of larger territories. The old “regional laws” that have survived to this day reflect the legal situation of the 12th century, although some of their provisions date back to earlier periods. Here, the Lagtings act as the highest legal assemblies of the country, the only ones that had the right to ratify laws. The regional codes of the two oldest assemblies - Gulating in Western Norway and Frostating in Trønnelag - testify to the strong influence of the interests of the royal power and its more effective legal control. We first learn about the other two ancient lagtings - Eidsivating and Borgarting in Estlanna - from the nationwide code of laws adopted by King Magnus the Law Corrector, - "Landslova" 1274.
The Lagthings enjoyed the support of the royal power, which is quite understandable. Through them, administrative communication was carried out between the inhabitants of the country and the most important initiatives of the authorities in the form of a law. It was in this way that Christianity and the basic elements of church organization were adopted in the rural areas of Norway, and a naval militia was introduced. As the highest courts, the Lagthing maintained law and order in accordance with the legal norms that provided for the administration of justice by the royal power, and also brought income to the king in the form of judicial fines and confiscations. It is believed that lagtings originated in prehistoric times, but no clear evidence of their existence before the reign of Harald the Fair-Haired has been found. It is quite possible that it was the royal power that established them, at least in such a progressive form as the representative bodies of the largest regions.
The organizational development of the monarchy required the creation of more permanent and secure military administrative bases than the old estates along the sea route. It is in this connection that the contribution of the royal power to the creation of the first Norwegian cities should be assessed. In the cities, the king and his attendants could secure a more peaceful and comfortable life than that which they led by constantly moving from place to place; besides, it was easier to control nearby territories from the city
Viking Age
Period between 800 and 1100 AD we call the Viking Age. At the beginning of the Viking Age, Norway was not single state. The country was divided into many small principalities, each of which was headed by its own prince. In 872 the Viking Harald Fairhair became the first king of all of Norway.
Many Vikings sailed across the sea to other countries. Some of them were merchants who bought and sold goods, while others were warriors engaged in robbery and murder.
Today, when we talk about the Vikings, we often think of warriors.
The baptism of Norway took place in the 11th century. Christianity replaced the ancient pagan faith.
Danish-Norwegian Union
In the XIV century, the influence of Denmark began to increase in Norway, and in 1397 Norway formally entered into an alliance with Denmark and Sweden. At the head of the union stood one common king. Some time later, Sweden withdrew from the union, but the union between Denmark and Norway continued until 1814.
Denmark ruled politics. Copenhagen became the union's cultural center and Norwegians read and wrote Danish. Norwegian peasants paid taxes to the king sitting in Copenhagen.
The collapse of the union and the new union
1814 is an important year in Norwegian history. On May 17 of this year, Norway received its own constitution.
At the beginning of the XIX century. battles raged on the fields of Europe. One of the biggest wars of that time was fought between England and France. Denmark-Norway took the side of France. And when France lost the war, the king of Denmark was forced to cede Norway to Sweden, which stood on the side of England.
In 1814 the union between Denmark and Norway broke up. Many Norwegians hoped that after the collapse of the union, Norway would become independent state, and several influential people gathered in the city of Eidsvoll in the county (province) of Akershus. One of the goals of this meeting was to write a constitution for an independent Norway. However, Norway was forced to enter into an alliance with Sweden, and in November 1814 the Swedish-Norwegian union became a fact.
The union with Sweden was looser than the previous union with Denmark. Norway retained its constitution with some modifications and had internal self-government. Foreign policy was determined by Sweden, and the Swedish king became the king of both countries.
National romanticism and Norwegian identity
In the middle of the 19th century, a direction developed in European culture and art, which received the name of national romanticism. For the followers of this direction, it was important to highlight national features, their exaltation and embellishment. In Norway, the beauty of nature was especially emphasized, and the peasant way of life was considered "typically Norwegian" way of life.
National romanticism found expression both in literature and in fine arts, and in music. During this period, Norwegians increasingly began to realize their national identity. Many began to feel a growing sense of pride in belonging to Norway and, as a result, a strong desire for their country to gain independence.
The union with Denmark lasted for centuries, and therefore the written language in Norway was Danish. The written language that we know today as "Bokmål" is the same Danish language that has been further developed.
Both Bokmål and Nynorsk have undergone great changes since the 19th century. However, there are still two official forms of Norwegian in Norway in addition to Sami and Kven.
Industrialization of Norway
In the middle of the 19th century, about 70% of the Norwegian population lived in rural areas. They were mainly agriculture and fishing. The life of many of them was hard. The country's population grew, and there was no longer enough land and work for everyone.
Cities have also changed. More and more factories were opened, and many moved from the villages to the cities in search of work. City life was hard for many working-class families. Working days were long and living conditions were poor. Families often had many children, and often several families had to share a small apartment. Many children also had to work in factories, the only way their family could survive. Many Norwegians wanted to try their luck in other countries: between 1850 and 1920 over 800,000 Norwegians emigrated to America.
Free and independent country
In 1905, the union with Sweden was broken. There had been political differences between the Norwegian Storting and the King of Sweden for a long time, and at the beginning of the 20th century, more and more Norwegians believed that Norway should become a free and independent country.
On June 7, 1905, the Storting announced that the Swedish king was no longer the king of Norway and that the union with Sweden was terminated. This led to strong reactions in Sweden, and both Norway and Sweden were on the brink of war. In the same year, two national referendums were held, as a result of which it was decided that the union with Sweden was terminated, and the new state of Norway became a monarchy.
The Danish prince Carl was chosen as the new king of Norway. He took the Old Norse royal name Haakon. King Haakon VII was king of Norway from 1905 until his death in 1957.
First half of the 20th century
To late XIX century in Norway for the production of electricity began to use the energy of falling water. This led to the construction of new industrial enterprises. The need for labor increased, and cities grew. In accordance with a special law, private enterprises built hydroelectric power plants, but water resources remained in the public domain.
In 1914-1918. battles of the 1st World War thundered on the fields of Europe. Norway did not take an active part in this war, but the economic consequences of the war were felt here too.
In the 30s. last century in Europe and North America an economic crisis broke out. Many have lost their homes and jobs. Although the situation in Norway was not as difficult as in many other countries, we call this time the “hard 30s”.
World War II 1939/1940 - 1945
In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, thus starting the 2nd world war. On April 9, 1940, German troops occupied Norway.
The fighting in Norway lasted only a few days, and Norway capitulated. The king and the government moved to England, from where they continued the struggle for the liberation of the country. Norway was ruled by the pro-German, not democratically elected, government of Vidkun Quisling.
There were not many battles on Norwegian soil, but many resistance groups fought against the invaders, committing acts of sabotage, publishing underground newspapers and organizing civil disobedience and passive resistance to the authorities.
Many members of the Resistance were forced to flee the country. During the Second World War, about 50,000 Norwegians fled to Sweden.
German troops were defeated on all fronts of the war, and in May 1945 Germany capitulated.
During the war, about 9,500 Norwegians died.
Recent history of Norway
After the war, the country had to be rebuilt. There was a great shortage of goods and a shortage of housing in the country. To revive the country in the shortest possible time, joint work and solidarity were required. The state strictly regulated the economy and consumption.
Shortly after the end of the war, the United Nations (UN) was formed. The main task of the UN is to work for peace and justice throughout the world. Norway was one of the first countries to join the UN. This happened in November 1945.
After the war, the US offered European countries economic aid. This economic aid program, called the Marshall Plan, made economic and political demands on the recipient countries. Under this Plan, Norway received about $3 billion.
In 1949, Norway and 11 other countries signed the North Atlantic Pact. This led to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO. Close ties between Western Europe and the United States continue to this day.
The economic situation of Norway in the 1950s and 1960s was relatively good, and the state introduced many reforms aimed at improving the lives of the population.
In the 1960s, a number of companies expressed their desire to explore for oil and gas off the coast of Norway. As with hydroelectric power fifty years earlier, oil resources remained in public ownership, and private companies were able to buy the rights to explore, drill and extract oil in limited areas and for a limited period of time. In 1969, oil was first found in the North Sea, and from that moment Norway began to develop as an oil power. Today, Norway is one of the largest oil exporting countries in the world, and the oil industry is of great importance to the Norwegian economy.
Large popular movements were also of great importance for the formation of modern Norway. The labor and women's movements played a particularly central role here. The roots of the labor movement in Norway go back to the 17th century. However, it became more organized in the 1980s, when a large number of new jobs were created in the country. The movement gained even more influence in the 1920s. The labor movement fought for better working conditions. Among the important objectives of the movement were the reduction of the working day, the improvement of workplace safety, workers' insurance against sickness, and the right to economic assistance for unemployment.
The women's movement fought for the rights of women in society, equality between the sexes and equal opportunities for men and women. Other important areas of struggle in the women's movement include the right to divorce, the right to use contraceptives, free abortion, and the right of women to dispose of their own bodies as they please. Today, men and women have equal rights to education and employment, to property and inheritance, to health care and good health.
Norway today
Today Norway is a modern democratic state with a high level of prosperity. Most people in Norway are economically well off and have a relatively high level of education. Both men and women participate in working life. Society is governed by a series of laws and treaties that provide the population with education, medical care, and, as needed, economic assistance.
The last decades have been characterized by a rapid level of development in the field of technology and computer technology. This was of great importance for Norway as well. New jobs are being created, the content of work is changing, and personal life most people undergo changes.
Over the past decades, Norway has developed into a multicultural and diverse society.
The early history of Oslo is closely intertwined with the history of the Vikings - restless warriors who, on the site of the current capital, already in the 7th century. built their dwellings. Over the many centuries of its existence, the city, at the whim of those in power, changed its name several times - Oslo or Opslo (1050-1624), Christiania (1624-1877), Christiania (1877-1924) and again Oslo (from 1924 to the present day).
There are several versions that interpret the origin of the name "Oslo". According to the most common - it means "the mouth of the river Lo" (from the Norwegian Os - mouth, lo - river Lo), i.e. at the place of origin of the settlement. Another hypothesis is more romantic. The king of Norway, Harald the Severe (Hardrade), who founded a trading settlement in these places, named it after his beloved wife Elizabeth (daughter of Yaroslav the Wise), which at that time sounded like Oslav. Well, the most intricate version - from linguists-experts in the Viking language. Some scientists believe that the city is named after the gods of the ancient Scandinavians - aces.
The official founding date of Oslo is considered to be 1050, but archaeologists made their own adjustments just on the eve of the celebration of the 900th anniversary, making an amendment of 50 years - 1000. But be that as it may, it was Harald III (1047-1066), a warrior, king and poet, turns this place into the economic and political center of Norway. This event is mentioned in the surviving sagas "The Circle of the Earth" by an Icelandic storyteller (skald) of the 13th century. - Snorri Sturluson.
Oslo's patron saint is Saint Halvard, a young Norwegian nobleman who died at the hands of an angry mob while saving a woman from reprisal. A millstone was tied to the body of the young man, trying to drown him, but a miracle happened - the sea did not swallow the hero, despite the heavy load attached. Halvard was canonized, and today we can see his image with a millstone in right hand on the city coat of arms. Under King Haakon V Magnusson (1299-1319), the city became the capital of Norway and began to be built rapidly. At this time, the Akershus fortress was founded, one of the first structures in Norway made of brick and stone.
In 1349, Oslo was devastated by an epidemic of bubonic plague, most of the eminent citizens and clergy died. But each time after another disaster, the city was reborn and became stronger and more significant. Since 1380 it has been the residence of the Norwegian royal court. True, after 17 years the capital was moved to Copenhagen, which became the main one in the tripartite union of Denmark, Sweden and Norway. The city was built mainly from wooden logs, so there were frequent fires here, often burning everything almost to the ground.
In 1624, during the reign of Christian IV, the settlement was irreparably damaged by fire. By order of the king, it was moved to a new location near the Akershus fortress, which for a long time served as the location of a small garrison and a repository of royal regalia, and in 1716 even withstood the siege of Charles XII. After the Northern War (1700-1721), the city grew rich thanks to the booming trade and shipbuilding. In 1814, Christiania again becomes the capital of Norway as part of Sweden, and since 1905 - already independent Norway.
During the First World War, Norway occupies neutrality, which it cannot repeat in World War II due to the occupation of the country by Germany. After the end of the war in Oslo, King Haakon returns from exile. One of the most striking events of the 20th century for Oslo is the holding of the 1952 Winter Olympics. Today, Oslo is modern city, which is home to 18% of the country's population. It is part of the county (province) of Akershus.
