Founder of the Russian physiological school, founder of the era of objective psychology, one of the brightest figures in Russian medicine.

nobleman by birth, Ivan Sechenov was born in 1829 in the family of a former military man. Being poor, his parents were able to give him only homemade initial education. He was mainly taught by his mother, who had learned to read and write in a monastery before her marriage. When the time came for Ivan to receive further education, his father died. 8 children grew up in Ivan's family, of which five had already become independent by that time. The rest, including Ivan, were minors. In view of the deteriorating financial situation of the family, it was decided to send Ivan to the Main Engineering School. The tuition fee was relatively small, and the profession was promising. After finishing it Sechenov he did not see service as his life's work and did not continue his military career, but entered the medical faculty of Moscow University as a volunteer. In addition to lectures on medicine, he attended a course in cultural studies, history, philosophy, theology and other disciplines for general development. And although the order at the university was strict in a military way, Ivan Sechenov showed himself to be an exemplary and promising student.

As a man who received his first education in the mathematical sciences, Ivan Sechenov gravitated toward precision in medicine as well. Not being satisfied with the empiricism of the then medical science, he began to develop in the field of physiology and scientific pathology. He passed the more difficult doctoral exams instead of medical examinations and received a medical degree with honors. Russian medicine at that time lagged far behind Western, in particular, European. Therefore, after the death of his mother, Sechenov decided to go abroad to study physiology at the expense of the inheritance he received.

In Germany, Austria, he studied with the best professors, famous doctors, in particular,. For several years, Sechenov worked in the best laboratories in Europe. Abroad, he met with outstanding Russian talents - Botkin, Mendeleev, artists Alexander Ivanov, who is assisted in his work on the canvas "The Appearance of Christ to the People." The fruit of extensive study and practice abroad was a doctoral dissertation that investigated the physiology of intoxication. Sechenov made many experiments on himself. In 1860 he returned to St. Petersburg to defend his dissertation.

Having become a professor at the Medical Academy of St. Petersburg, Sechenov attracted with his lectures many not only medical students, but also people who were far from medicine. For example, Chernyshevsky and Turgenev attended his lectures on "animal electricity". Sechenov's lectures were so impressive that they were even published in the Military Medical Journal. Then these lectures were awarded the highest award of the Academy of Sciences, and Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov was elected a full member of the Academy of Sciences.

After 2 years, Sechenov left for Paris to work in the laboratory of Claude Bernard, the founder of endocrinology, a well-known French researcher of the processes of internal secretion. The discovery made during this year's sabbatical was the discovery of a process of central inhibition occurring in the brain. The description of this phenomenon was devoted to the article "Reflexes of the brain", published in the journal "Medical Bulletin" in 1863. The article explained the mental behavior of a person in connection with external stimuli, and not with a mysterious soul. Sechenov associated the reaction of the nervous system with reflexes, which he classified as simple and complex.

Sechenov's colleague, the physiologist Shaternikov, described the article as having made "an amazing impression ... on the whole thinking society." And Pavlov, who considered the work the pinnacle of Sechenov's scientific work, called it "a brilliant stroke of Sechenov's thought." The essence of the discovery was reduced to the ability of the brain to delay or inhibit excitation. This phenomenon became known as "Sechenov's inhibition". Sechenov conducted an experiment with a dog, which was limited access to smells, sounds and visual stimuli, as a result of which the dog constantly slept.

The discovery in the field of psychology, which at that time was the diocese of religion, attracted the attention of the authorities and the church to the scientist. The censor of Sechenov's work wrote to the leadership: "... undermines religious beliefs and moral and political principles." His scientific publications began to be banned, and the clergy offered to exile him for "calmness and pacification" to the Solovetsky Monastery. Worried about the fate of a world-famous scientist, his friends offered him lawyers who would best represent his interests in court. Sechenov was surprised: “Why do I need lawyers? I will bring a frog with me and show the prosecutor all my experiments. Let him refute me." The government did not dare to incur the shame of the world community and, in the end, allowed the printing of the work. However, the distrust of political reliability remained with the authorities for the outstanding Russian scientist for life.

One of the central works of Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov is Physiology of the Nervous System, published in 1866. In this work, the scientist proves the ability of human sensory systems to self-regulate and the existence of feedback between muscles and the reaction of the central nervous system to the signals they give.

Sechenov actively advocated the equality of women and advocated for women's education. He admitted women to his lectures, at one time even supervised their scientific work and psychophysiological research. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov taught at women's courses in Moscow, and participated in the organization of the Higher Women's Courses. However, society was not ready to give ladies the same rights as men. Sechenov strongly opposed discrimination based on gender. In 1870, there was another story that was the last straw before the scientist retired. He recommended the outstanding scientists I. I. Mechnikov and A. E. Golubev as professors of the Academy of Sciences. However, they were voted out. With his resignation, Sechenov protested against discrimination against women and deserving scientists who were voted out.

Sechenov went to St. Petersburg University to work in the chemical laboratory of D. I. Mendeleev, with whom they had been friends since their studies abroad. Then from 1871 to 1876 he headed the department of physiology at the Odessa University. In the next five years, he returned to St. Petersburg to the Department of Physiology of the University. At the same time, the scientist taught at Moscow University, first as an assistant professor, then from 1891 as a professor.

In the last two decades of his life, Szecheno worked on a topic that seems not so serious to the uninitiated - the respiratory function of the blood. In St. Petersburg, he basically completed his work related to gas exchange in the human body, laying the foundation for a whole trend in science. When in 1875 three daredevils soared into the air on a Zenith balloon, nothing foreshadowed a tragic death. Rising into the air for 8 kilometers, two of them died from suffocation. At the Congress of Naturalists in 1879, Sechenov made a report in which he scientifically substantiated the cause of the death of two aeronauts.

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov was a talented scientist with progressive views and an advanced opinion. The authorities did not like his independence and independence of judgment, therefore, at the end of his life, the scientist had to leave for Leipzig to do research work, which he was deprived of in Russia. So for three years he worked abroad, and at home he only lectured. In 1891 he was invited to return to take the place of the late professor of physiology at Moscow University.

Without leaving research on gas exchange, Sechenov designed several remarkable devices, in particular, a portable breathing apparatus, and continued to study neuromuscular physiology. In 1891, his main work was published, summarizing the main research and discoveries "Physiology of nerve centers", highly appreciated both in Russia and abroad. After 10 years, Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov retired and stopped teaching even in private courses. In 1901, his work "Essay on the working movements of man" was published, and three years later - "Objective thought and reality." In 1905, an outstanding Russian scientist passed away. His grave is in the Novodevichy Convent.

The works of I. M. Sechenov cover a wide range of areas of science and life. His discoveries influenced psychology, medicine, natural science. Some of his research formed the basis for developments in the gas transportation and oil and gas production. The ideas of the great Russian scientist are still recognized as relevant in human rights movements, trade unions, women's and labor movements.

For presentation: I.P. Pavlov the importance of work for speech therapy

Important for speech therapy is the teaching of I.P. Pavlov about the interaction of 1 and 2 signal systems.

Our feelings and perceptions I.P. Pavlov called the first signals of reality. They are formed due to the presence of special physiological mechanisms - analyzers. The greatest asset of man is the presence of a special, higher form of signaling - the second signaling system. The first and second signaling systems are closely related. The second signal system develops and forms on the basis of the first. Violation of the mechanisms of the first signaling system may lead to a violation of the second signaling system. For example, the causes of speech disorders can sometimes be a violation of the mechanisms of auditory, visual analyzers, and therefore a violation of auditory and visual sensations.

Based on the teachings of I.P. Pavlov about the interaction of 1 and 2 signaling systems, we must draw important conclusions for speech therapy practice. For the development and maintenance of the normal functioning of the 2nd signaling system, it is necessary to develop and protect the 1st signaling system, especially the sense organs.

Taking into account the complex interactions of the first and second signaling systems makes it possible to more effectively build speech therapy work to correct speech disorders, to compensate for impaired speech and non-speech functions.

Speech therapy uses knowledge of general anatomy and physiology, neurophysiology about the mechanisms of speech, the brain organization of the speech process, the structure and functioning of the analyzers involved in speech activity.

To understand the mechanisms of speech disorders and to identify the patterns of the correctional process, knowledge of the dynamic localization of higher mental functions and the brain organization of speech is important.

Speech is a complex functional system, which is based on the use of the sign system of the language in the process of communication. The most complex system The language is the product of a long socio-historical development and is acquired by the child in a relatively short time.

The speech functional system is based on the activity of many cerebral structures of the brain, each of which performs a specific operation of speech activity.

Sechenov I.M.

The term "etiology". The etiology of speech disorders: a historical review. Modern view on the causes of speech disorders; organic, functional and socio-psychological reasons. Critical periods in the development of speech function. "Primary" and "secondary" speech disorders

Among the factors contributing to the occurrence of speech disorders in children, there are unfavorable external (exogenous) and internal (endogenous) factors, as well as external conditions. environment.

When considering the diverse causes of speech pathology, an evolutionary-dynamic approach is used, which consists in analyzing the very process of the occurrence of a defect, taking into account the general patterns of abnormal development and patterns of speech development at each age stage (I. M. Sechenov, L. S. Vygotsky, V. I. It is also necessary to subject the conditions surrounding the child to a special study.

The principle of biological and social unity in the process of formation of mental (including speech) processes makes it possible to determine the influence of the speech environment, communication, emotional contact and other factors on the maturation of the speech system. Examples of the adverse effects of the speech environment can be the underdevelopment of speech in hearing children brought up by deaf parents, in long-term ill and often hospitalized children, the occurrence of stuttering in a child during prolonged psychotraumatic situations in the family, etc.

In the development of issues of higher nervous activity, the ideological inspirer of I.P. Pavlov, about which he himself spoke more than once, was I.M. Sechenov (1829 - 1905). I.M. Sechenov for the first time in the history of natural science expressed the idea that consciousness is only a reflection of reality and knowledge human environment The environment is possible only with the help of the sense organs, the products of which are the primary source of all mental activity. I.M. Sechenov was deeply convinced that the root cause of any human action lies outside of him. Observing the behavior and formation of the child's consciousness, Sechenov showed how innate reflexes become more complex with age, enter into various connections with each other and create the entire complexity of human behavior. He wrote that all acts of conscious and unconscious life, by way of origin, are reflexes. However, I.M. Sechenov did not identify mental phenomena with reflexes, he spoke only about the reflex origin of mental processes, about their natural determinism (conditionality) by the effects of environmental conditions and past human experience, about the possibility and necessity of their physiological, i.e. scientific analysis. Arbitrary movements, according to Sechenov, are formed in the process of individual development of the organism, through repeated associations of elementary reflexes. As a result, the organism learns many such actions for which there is neither a plan nor a method of organization in its genetic fund. With the help of individual experience and repetition, simple and complex skills, knowledge are formed, ideas, speech and consciousness arise. I.M. Sechenov writes that the immediate beginning of the reflex is sensual excitation caused from the outside, and the end is movement, however, physiology must also study the middle of the reflex act, that is, “a mental element in the narrow sense of the word”, which is very often, if not always , turns out to be, in essence, not an independent phenomenon, but an integral part of the whole process as a whole, developing in the brain according to the principle of association. Developing the concept of association in a purely physiological sense as a connection between reflexes, I.M. Sechenov pointed out that the process of association "usually represents a sequential series of reflexes, in which the end of each previous one merges with the beginning of the next one in time." The chain of such reflexes is due to the fact that any reaction of the body to irritation is, in turn, a source of new irritations that affect certain reflex apparatuses of the brain and induce them to respond. In these provisions of I.M. Sechenov on the consistent “stimulation” of reflexes, the idea of ​​reflex internal and external isolation as a functional basis for the connection between the organism and the outside world is clearly expressed. The idea of ​​a reflex ring received its further concrete development in the studies of N. A. Bernstein (1896 - 1966), which he began in 1929, later laying the theoretical foundations of modern biomechanics. According to I.M. Sechenov, a thought is a mental “reflex with a delayed ending” that develops along an internal chain of associated reflexes, and a “mental reflex with an enhanced ending” is what is usually called affect, emotion. Thanks to the "mental element", an integral part of the reflex process, the body can actively adapt to the environment, balance it, self-regulate, showing a wide variety of behavioral reactions. In his works (“Reflexes of the brain”, “Objective thought and reality”, “Elements of thought”, “Who and how to develop psychology?”) I.M. Sechenov reasonably reveals that the associative processes of the brain are extremely diverse, extremely mobile, interdependent , intertwined. With each new irritation, they become more complex, refined, and acquire a qualitatively new look. Contact us

Contribution and. M. Sechenov in the development of world and domestic physiology

The greatest scientist of his time, I. M. Sechenov was an outstanding progressive public figure of the Russian revolutionary-democratic movement of the 1960s and 1970s. A consistent and militant materialist in science, a democrat and a staunch opponent of autocracy in politics, I. M. Sechenov boldly defended and propagated his progressive views, which was of great importance for the dissemination of materialistic ideas in Russian natural science, psychology and philosophy. The active participation of I. M. Sechenov in the acute ideological struggle of Russian revolutionary democracy against reactionary idealism in science and philosophy had an enormous impact on the development of philosophical and socio-political thought in Russia.

I. M. Sechenov was born on August 14, 1829 in the village. Teply Stan of the Simbirsk province. In 1843, he entered the St. Petersburg Military Engineering School, where he received good training in mathematics (including higher education), physics and chemistry, which was of great importance for his subsequent scientific work. After graduating from college in 1848, he, as an ensign of a sapper battalion, was sent to Kyiv to serve. However military service I. M. Sechenov was very burdensome, and in 1850 he sought his resignation.

In 1860, I. M. Sechenov returned to Russia as a physiologist well prepared for professorship. After defending his dissertation, he was elected to the Department of Physiology of the Medico-Surgical Academy, where he then worked until 1871. These years in the life of I. M. Sechenov were very fruitful. In addition to the usual lectures for students of the academy, he delivered a course of lectures "On Animal Electricity" for a wider audience. The lectures were accompanied by demonstrations of experiments and were a great success; they were published and awarded the Demidov Prize of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

“Equanimity alone makes us

admit that Ivan Mikhailovich laid

truly cornerstones in the doctrine of

mechanisms of the central nervous system ... "

I. P. Pavlov

In 1863, I. M. Sechenov made his outstanding discovery - he established the presence in the brain of special centers that inhibit spinal reflexes. This discovery brought him worldwide fame. In the same year, I. M. Sechenov published his brilliant work “Reflexes of the Brain” or, according to the original title, “An Attempt to Reduce the Method of Origin of Psychic Phenomena to a Physiological Basis

Sechenov's work explains the mental activity of the brain. It is reduced to a single muscular movement, which always has an external, material action as its initial source. Thus, all acts of a person’s mental life are explained in a purely mechanical way ... This materialistic theory, which brings a person, even the most exalted one, into the state of a simple machine, devoid of any self-consciousness and free will, acting fatalistically, overthrows all concepts of moral duties, of sanity crimes, robs our deeds of all merit and all responsibility; destroying the moral foundations of society in earthly life, thereby destroying the religious dogma of the future life, it does not agree with either Stianism or the criminal-legal view and positively leads to the corruption of morals.

THEM. Sechenov was so sure of the correctness of his conclusions that when friends asked him which of the lawyers he was thinking of using to defend himself in the upcoming trial, he replied: “Why do I need a lawyer. I will take a frog with me to the court and will perform all my experiments before the judges; let the prosecutor refute me then.”

I.M. Sechenov is one of the founders of Russian electrophysiology. His monograph On Animal Electricity (1862) was the first work on electrophysiology in Russia. It attracted great attention and contributed to the emergence of physiologists' interest in electrical phenomena in living tissues and electrophysiological research methods. Of great importance for the development of domestic electrophysiology were the ideas developed in it about the nature of the excitation process. Based on a number of facts, I. M. Sechenov comes to the conclusion that the process of excitation, both in the nerve and in the muscle, is electrical in nature and that in studying it, the only correct direction is the physicochemical, molecular direction.

“The honor of creating a real large Russian physiological school and the honor of creating a direction that largely determines the development of world physiology belongs to Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov,” wrote the outstanding Soviet physiologist, academician Leon Abgarovich Orbeli.

The greatest contribution was made by I. M. Sechenov to such branches of physiology as blood gases and respiratory gas exchange, neurophysiology with electrophysiology, and psychophysiology.

Short description. ..

In 1863, I. M. Sechenov made his outstanding discovery - he established the presence in the brain of special centers that inhibit spinal reflexes. This discovery brought him worldwide fame. In the same year, I. M. Sechenov published his brilliant work “Reflexes of the Brain” or, according to the original title, “An Attempt to Reduce the Method of Origin of Psychic Phenomena to a Physiological Basis”.

N.I. Zhinkin

Biography

Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin (1893 - 1979) - domestic psychologist, representative of the Moscow psycholinguistic school, who received worldwide recognition; doctor of pedagogical sciences; lecturer at VGIK (1929-1947), Moscow State University (1932); full member of the State Academy of Artistic Sciences (1923), chairman of the psychological section of the Scientific Council on Cybernetics of the Academy of Sciences.

He worked on the problems of the correlation of speech, language and thinking, speech activity and the emergence of a speech reaction in a child. Among his many works, the works of paramount importance stand out: "Mechanisms of speech" (1958), "On code transitions in inner speech" (1964), "Speech as a conductor of information" (1982) - the original title of the manuscript was "Speech as a conductor of information that optimizes work of the intellect.

Nikolai Ivanovich understood language as “a set of means necessary to process and transmit information”, since “language connected the intellect with perception”, and “the semantic aspect of perception is especially striking when receiving speech”. N.I. Zhinkin emphasizes that “in a person, intellect and language reinforce each other. These are complementary links of one mechanism. Without intelligence there is no language, but without language there is no intelligence.

Language as an independent system with its own structure is a means of implementing the speech process. Language and speech are closely related, speech is the sphere of the functioning of language, without language there is no speech.

“Language and speech perform the functions of optimizing activity and all human behavior ... The body implements genetic information, and language - historical. The organism cannot forget what has developed in evolution, and the human language is looking for information for its improvement... Man is looking for new better situations.”

Language is realized through speech, which was considered by Nikolai Ivanovich as an action performed by one of the partners in order to convey thoughts and semantic influence in relation to another partner - through the mechanism of generation and understanding of messages: encoding and decoding information.

Communication needs have developed special mechanisms:

Coding (fixing messages),

Decoding (understanding messages),

Recoding (processing messages into the language of inner speech and subject relations).

N.I. Zhinkin identifies interacting codes: discrete (letter), continuous (sound) and mixed (in inner speech). These codes have developed into a single system: language - sound speech - inner speech - intellect - with functions characteristic of each code. “Continuous audio code is a channel of direct communication between communication partners.

N.I. Zhinkin as a psycholinguist at the center of his research put questions related to the generation, perception and understanding of speech. In the well-known work "Speech as a conductor of information", the problems of the correlation of language-speech-intelligence are solved with access to the speaker. And this means access to communicative and psychological conditions of communication. Revealing the nature of the external and internal components of the phenomenon of language-speech-intelligence. He develops his concept of a universal subject code, reflecting the "device" and the mechanism of its action. This code has a dual nature. On the one hand, it is a sign system of notation (phonemes, morphemes, word forms, sentences, text), on the other hand, it is a system of “material signals in which language is realized”.

Phoneme in speech language

Speech sounds are perceived by a person in a continuous - iconic code. This means that the sensory, sound composition of the speech stream changes all the time and it is as a result of this that information transmitted to the partner accumulates all the time. No change can be noticed unless there is something that remains constant or changes in a different order of time. Since the sound stream in speech is really continuous, the phoneme cannot be accurately distinguished from this continuity. In other words, it cannot be heard as special, separate. And yet everyday experience shows that sounds are distinguishable in the composition of words. Without this, it would be impossible to understand anything in speech at all. Soon they came to the conclusion that every thing, including the phoneme, is recognized by signs.

On the basis of elementary observations of the child's phonation during a certain period of language acquisition, it can be established without any tools that the child hears, namely, the differential sign of the phoneme. An adult, of course, also hears these signs, but cannot be aware of this. An adult hears the whole phoneme as a component of a syllable and a word, while a child does not understand either words or their combinations, but he pronounces syllables and sometimes reacts to spoken words. Based on all this, it can be unconditionally asserted that the child hears the differential feature of the phoneme as an invariant. Usually the invariant is found on the basis of the processing of variants in the experience of perception. In the case under consideration, the child initially has no experience and no options. On the basis of self-learning, he himself creates an experience for himself to bring together various emerging options. The existing invariant, adapted to the rest of the components of the phoneme, is the result of information processing during the formation of a linguistic sign that has not yet received a meaning. This phenomenon should be considered as a universal of human language. Children whose parents speak different languages ​​experience the same phenomena. The result is a language that can be translated into other languages.

A phoneme cannot really be isolated from a syllable, but when it is processed and replaced by a letter, it will merge with other phonemes depending on its place in the syllable and word. All this indicates that when discussing the problem of phonemes and their differential features, it is necessary to take into account not only their audibility, visibility, and motor perceptibility, but also the process of encoding and recoding itself, which occurs when a signal passes from the periphery of the nervous system to the center and, possibly, during these transitions it is differently recoded. All this helps to understand the complex hierarchical process of transformation of sensory signals (signs) into signs that carry semantic information.

However, these complications cannot cancel the results achieved at the initial stages of signal conversion. From this point of view, it is of interest to transform the sound process into a visible code so that it is again converted into an auditory one. This is of great practical interest in teaching oral speech to deaf children.

A deaf person does not hear the words to be spoken, but he has a visible code for visually deciphering what is said and assimilating the actions of the utterance - through the dynamics of the lips. The entry into work of a part of the articulatory apparatus due to the system causes the inclusion of other parts of the same apparatus, which can be adjusted by the teacher. In such a roundabout way, the audible phoneme, transformed into a visible one, is complemented by the visible articulation of the lips and, accordingly, the entire pronunciation of the sound.

In the process of speech processing during encoding and decoding, a strictly regulated nervous restructuring occurs during decoding in the direction from a continuous code to a discrete one, and during encoding, from a discrete code to a continuous one. This can be seen, if only because the word pronounced in sounds, at the final stage of processing at the reception, means the same thing as written in letters. This means that the sound shell of the word has already played its role, and at the level of intelligence the word will be processed as well as consisting of letters. It is understandable why in some cases the typist, when asked what sound she hears in the word Moscow, after m, answers: oh, although it sounds like a.

The word as a unit of language consists of always definite phonemes and is recognized as a result of the constancy of its phonemic composition. This phenomenon in linguistics is expressed in the fact that the sounds in the word are phonemes and are studied in a special branch of science - phonology.

Distinguish between phonemes and speech sound. In the first case, we mean that audible sound shell that corresponds to the discrete component of the word and is determined by a bundle of differential features. It is believed that if a person distinguishes words by meaning, then he hears phonemes. In the second case, we mean all sorts of sound phenomena that occur in the process of implementing the language in speech, observed by hearing and recorded by special acoustic equipment.

From these definitions it follows that the phoneme itself exists in the language, and its implementation in speech is found in three types of code - continuous, discrete and mixed.

Phonemes belong to the field of language and directly as a linguistic phenomenon cannot be fixed instrumentally. The study of the system of phonemes of a given language is limited in a special discipline - phonology. But since the phonemes in one way or another merge into a continuous syllabic code, their sound rearrangement in syllables will, of course, be noticed in perception and will be interpreted as a sign of a change in the phoneme in the word form, i.e., as a grammatical fact. If in syllables such a fusion of sounds occurs that does not correspond to the learned phonemes, it is not noticed in perception.

A distinctive (distinctive) feature is a means for integrating (generalizing) a phoneme, and a phoneme is a means for integrating a suffix that already has a semantic orientation. However, the distinguishing feature in itself has no meaning. This is speech material formed under certain conditions of sound generation. As noted above, a phoneme has many different features, and the feature by which a phoneme can be recognized must be distinguished from many others (features of voices, states of the speaker, etc.). The mechanism of such a selection must be contained in the language system before communication in the process of speech comes into force, since otherwise the phoneme will not be able to enter into the integrative integrity of the word. All this indicates that language and speech are a purely human property that is in the process of formation, development and continues to improve.

Phonemic integration generates words as meaningful means. One word means absolutely nothing, and their accumulation, located in a line, will not contain information, since it does not form an integrative system. Such a system is a way of connecting words. The first phase of semantic integration was the creation of word forms, the second phase was the way words were combined. But before proceeding to the consideration of the second phase, it is advisable to find out how the combination of signs inside or outside the word leads to the formation of an objective meaning, albeit vague (diffuse), but still clearly containing some information about reality.

Suffixes not only characterize the form of the word, greatly facilitating its recognition, but also indicate certain subject relations: in a finger, a garden. The suffix -ik- fixes our attention on the size of the subject of speech. The same suffix can also be used as an affectionate one, which is helped by intonation and gestures. In terms of the problems discussed here, it is interesting to note that diminutive and endearing suffixes can also be used by domesticated animals, in particular birds.

Here is an example: Two months after the training communication, the budgerigar began to speak independently, i.e. pronounce sounds similar to the syllabic articles of human language with a sufficient degree of intelligibility. They named him Petya. Then they turned to him - Petrusha, Petro, Petechka, Petyusha. The most significant thing in these observations is that soon, during training, he began to compose names for himself - Petelka, Petyulyusenky, Petrovichka, Love, Lovely, Petilyusenky, Popozoychik (butt - from a parrot, Zoya - the name of the hostess).

The parrot seeks to transform microwords with a diminutive suffix into an adjective, a verb and add them to the first word - sing, sing sing, Petechka pierces, boyish bird. There is a need to supplement one word with another in a different form. This is the source of the formation of parts of speech. However, the efforts made do not reach the goal, such a division into suffixes is not obtained, which would form an integral integrated word. Such a word is impossible without another; there are no single words in the language. In the parrot, only pet suffixes and diminutives in the meaning of pets have acquired meaning. The enthusiasm with which the parrot communicates with its mistress is striking. Emotion is not what is said in the speech, but the state in which the speaker is. This is what leads partners to friendly sociability or, in the case of a negative attitude of partners, to hot-tempered antagonism.

But since suffixes enter into symbolic relations as part of a word form, they begin to acquire semantic significance, i.e., reflect subject relations.

Grammatical space

The main material for contracting words in the grammatical space are inflections, inflectional suffixes and postfixes, as well as forms of the auxiliary verb to be. A certain set of these components predetermines the word form of another word, for example:

I walk ... I'm down the street.

Walking... Vasya...

They go...they...

Walking... Can

Coming... You...

Walks / will ... I

This example shows the way one word is linked to another. This is the model of two words. Each word in this second phase of integration is associated with another or several others and forms such a whole in which the natural dynamics of inflection arises.

Perception and iconic speech memory

A person tries to unite in perception even randomly scattered discrete points. Since ancient times, man, looking at the starry sky, found images of the Big Dipper, Cassiopeia, etc. What is expressed in intonation (question, order, prayer, request, etc.) can be transformed into a visual image through facial expressions and pantomimics. In general, any sign system in its implementation needs one or another type of sensory. And then there is iconic coding in the form of images.

As you know, a telegraph operator, working in Morse code, will silently (in inner speech) translate dots, dashes and intervals into letters, words and phrases. He immediately reads Morse code as normal alphabetic text. Such a translation is nothing but a transition from one code to another. In other words, in order to move on to the code that is understandable, a person must learn the previous, preparatory codes that are available to him as an organism, as a neurophysiological unit. It is impossible to immediately listen to speech and learn to perceive it, let alone understand it. Everything that was said above about the phases of integration of speech units, the formation of word forms, the internal, suffixal connections of these forms, was nothing more than the formation of a preliminary informational stage in the transition to a code capable of transporting thought and understanding it. This is achieved through a purely human education - an image. A person who has heard or read a certain combination of words immediately has an image of reality. This is a concept, a reflection of reality. If it were possible to compose exactly the same series only from word forms, they would not evoke an image. But then a lexeme appears on a word form, and then a miracle happens - the words disappear and instead of them an image of the reality appears, which is displayed in the content of these words. Such a device opens the way for limitless improvement in the processing of information flows processed by a person.

From what has been said, we can conclude that a person understands what is being communicated to him as his ability to create a message himself at the same level of integration develops. It should, as it were, simultaneously decode and encode. In order to understand, one must do something (a lot), but in order to do this, he must understand how to do it. The code on which a person encodes and decodes is the same. This is a universal subject code. It (hereinafter referred to as CPC) is universal because it is characteristic of the human brain and has commonality for different human languages. This means that subject (denotative) translations from one human language to another are possible, despite the peculiarity of dynamic integrations in each of them.

Inner speech operates on this code, having the ability to move from internal control to external, relying not only on sound and letter signals, but on the entire sensory palette through visual representations. Behind the words one can always see not only what is being said, but also what is hushed up and what is expected.

In a general form, the universal subject code (UCC) is constructed in such a way as to control the speaker’s speech and so that the partners understand what exactly is being said, what subject (thing, phenomenon, event) is about, why and for whom it is needed, and what conclusion can be drawn from said. The subject code is the junction of speech and intellect. Here is the translation of thought into the language of man.

Speech is a sequence of syllables that form an iconic (perception, recognition) code. The child not only pronounces syllables, but can also hear two sounds in one continuous syllable. But does he hear sounds? This is the main question that needs to be solved in order to understand how the information hierarchy of speech is built.

By the age of one year, a child learns 9 words, by one and a half - 39 words, by two years - 300 and by four years - 2000. Such a rapid mastery of the language can be called a miracle. By the age of four, a child has mastered all grammar and speaks mostly correctly. Recall that in this case, it is not imitation that acts, but a persistent need for verbal communication and an awakened interest in the surrounding reality.

The most striking thing is that already in babbling the child practices the repetition of syllables. To repeat the syllables pa-ba, pa-ba, pa-ba means to recognize two phonemes in a syllable, to distinguish the syllable pa from the syllable ba, remember these syllables and reproduce them in the future. A child in babbling not only pronounces, but plays with syllables, repeating one or the other. You might think that he is amused by listening to himself and reproducing the same thing.

And yet, the question of whether the child hears two sounds in a syllable during the babbling period should be answered in the negative. When a parrot, a starling or a canary pronounces a human language word by imitation, it can be said that they have formed an auditory-motor feedback. The same cannot be said for a child. The parrot hardened the memorized words forever. It will repeat a constant sequence of sounds on one occasion or another. The child, on the other hand, changes the sequence of syllables and the composition of sounds in them in different ways. He is amused by the fact that they are different, but he has not yet formed any feedback. He clearly says the syllables to himself, and sometimes to himself. This is not communication.

Syllabic gymnastics takes place in babbling, the child practices pronouncing syllables regardless of their sign composition, [pa] and [n "a] are different not only in softness [n], but also in reduction [a], therefore, the distinctive function in babbling is not carried out However, sound-motor feedback has been formed, which should be specially noted, since linguistic feedback is not just a connection between sound and articulatory movement, but the identification of what is heard and what is spoken.

A person, listening to himself, controls whether he says what he has in mind, and how his statement turns out and affects his partner. Language feedback is not a standard reflex, as happens when a parrot or a starling imitates human speech.

In humans, feedback arises from the very essence of communication and is the source for the formation of a universal subject code. The act of communication leads to mutual understanding and identification of objective meanings. Such a connection should be formed at all levels of the linguistic hierarchy.

Language, speech and text

Zhinkin language speech memory

Speech must be not only perceived, but also understood, which is achieved by processing sentences. A new sentence with its own syntactic structure, received in the field of perception, erases the traces of the previous sentence in immediate memory. The processed result enters the long-term memory. But then a paradoxical situation arises - from long-term memory it is impossible to reproduce in the same form those few sentences that were just sent to it for storage. It is possible to memorize these sentences by a series of repetitions, and then the memory will be able to reproduce them. However, such an operation makes little sense. If our partner reproduces literally the accepted sequence of sentences, we will not know if he understood what was said. The mechanical reproduction of speech is not meaningful. This is why there are inevitably wells between sentences. Reproduction of randomly typed sentences is possible only after repeated repetitions. This phenomenon has long been established in psychology.

But if a literal reproduction of a group of sentences just perceived is impossible, then it is quite possible to reconstruct them in meaning. This, in fact, is the essence of communication in the process of speech. Meaning is a feature of a particular vocabulary. With the help of naming, a certain object is distinguished (by an object is meant everything about which something can be said) in its relation to another object. This relationship is called lexical meaning. It is assumed that when acquiring a language, lexical meanings are also assimilated. However, it is impossible to find out to what extent they are assimilated by reproducing them separately; it is necessary to apply an ensemble of meanings in order to find the meaning that is applicable in this case. But since new information is transmitted in the process of communication, the meaning of each lexeme included in the ensemble changes to some extent. Lexical polysemy, through the selection of words, opens up wide opportunities for inclusion in the ensemble of semantic shifts that bring their meanings closer to the speaker's intention with a certain threshold.

The vocabulary in the memory of each person is not the same. There is some common part, and unfamiliar vocabulary can be translated into this common part. And if we talk about inner speech, into which the received text is always translated, then lexical differences begin to play an even greater role. That is why the identification of the denotation, which is necessary for understanding the text, occurs through translation into inner speech, where subjective signals and marks are transformed into a common vocabulary for people - common, but not the same. This is helped by the polysemy of the language, metaphor and linguistic community of the speakers, as well as, of course, the semantic appropriateness of the use of these lexical substitutions in a given form and segment of the text.

Undoubtedly, the meaningfulness of the statement will be only when it contains some thought. Thought is the result of the work of the intellect. A remarkable feature of the language is that its device provides the possibility of transmitting thoughts from one person to another. What we said about the universal subject code should be repeated, since it was only an assumption. It was necessary in order to show the process of development and connection of language levels. Already at the first steps of the self-development of the language, signals of a completely diffuse nature appear - strange signs without any meaning - these are phonemes and their signs - word forms. Further, these signs accumulate, combine, form the dynamics of rule-like differences, which is controlled by feedback. And only now, when the hierarchy of levels was crowned with a proposal, there have been significant changes. It becomes obvious that a word can not only have a special meaning in a given sentence, but, meeting with another word in another sentence, change this meaning. At the same time, although the speaker is given greater freedom of arbitrary selection of words and the automatic supply of grammatically correct combinations, he must make every effort to select words for the sentence being prepared. Imagine that your partner says: Pick a watermelon at the base of the dog and put it on the ant ring. This sentence is grammatically correct, made up of specific words of the Russian language and has two predicates - tear and put. This correct sentence will not be authorized by the universal subject code for processing, although the general scheme of subject relations is indicated: you need to pick a watermelon and put it in a certain place. But in reality there are no indicated places, and the proposed operation cannot be performed.

Meaning arises not only in lexemes. It begins to form before language and speech. It is necessary to see things, move among them, listen, touch - in a word, accumulate in memory all the sensory information that enters the analyzers. Only under these conditions is the speech received by the ear from the very beginning processed as a sign system and integrated in the act of semiosis. Already the “language of nannies” is materially understandable to the child and is accepted by the Code of Criminal Procedure.

The formation of meaning in speech, one must think, occurs in a special mechanism of communication. Communication will not take place if the thought transmitted from one partner to another is not identified. The speaker has an intent to speak. He knows what he will talk about, the logical stress emphasizes the predicate, that is, what will be discussed. Thus, there is not only some statement, but the perspective of the development of thought. This means that the subject area of ​​the statement is indicated.

There should always be a bridge between partners' replicas - inner speech, in which lexical meanings are integrated and a textual meaning is formed. Let one of the partners say a few sentences. At the reception, when perceived by another partner, these sentences are semantically compressed in a subjective object-visual and schematic code. Each of these sentences is finished and between them, as mentioned above, grammatical wells were formed. How does meaning arise? Let's look at this with an example:

1. Black, living eyes gazed intently from the canvas.

2. It seemed that the lips would now open, and a cheerful joke would fly off of them, already playing on an open and friendly face.

4. A tablet attached to a gilded frame testified that the portrait of Chinginnato Baruzzi was painted by K. Bryullov.

In this text, there are so deep holes between the first three sentences that it is not so easy to connect them in meaning. And only in the fourth sentence is everything necessary to tie all four sentences together. But the fourth sentence, taken separately, is also obscure.

In inner speech, this text is compressed into a concept (representation) containing the semantic clot of the entire text segment. The concept is stored in long-term memory and can be restored in words that do not literally coincide with the perceived ones, but those that integrate the same meaning that was contained in the lexical integral of the received statement.

Now we can more precisely define what the text meaning is. Textual meaning is the integration of the lexical meanings of two adjacent sentences of a text. If integration does not occur, the next adjacent sentence is taken, and so on until the moment when a semantic connection of these sentences arises.

The conclusion that the integration of two or more adjacent sentences is necessary to understand the text is of great importance for clarifying the entire hierarchical structure of language - speech. The sentence is the highest level of the hierarchy. The units of all lower levels are somehow verified in the sentence, since it is it that contains the meaning. It is absurd to imagine a speech devoid of a sentence.

The text becomes the memory of human society, supplying it with information, optimizes the intellect. Of course, this text from memory again enters the cycle of individual codes. As a result, a person's statements acquire subject-real power and become a means of changing situations, remaking things, forming new things and events. This means that language-speech performs creative functions.

Glossary of terms (glossary)

Automated speech strings- speech actions implemented without the direct participation of consciousness.

agnosia- a violation of various types of perception that occurs with certain brain lesions. Distinguish between visual, tactile, auditory agnosia.

Agrammatism- violation of understanding (impres.) and use (express.) of the grammatical means of the language.

Agraphia(dysgraphia) - impossibility (agraphia) or partial specific violation of the writing process (dysgraphia).

Adaptation- adaptation of the organism to the conditions of existence.

Acalculia- violation of the account and counting operations as a result of damage to various areas of the cerebral cortex.

Alalia absence or underdevelopment of speech due to organic damage to the speech zones of the cerebral cortex in the prenatal or early period of child development. Distinguish between motor and sensory alalia. There are other systematizations.

Alexia(dyslexia) - impossibility (alexia) or partial specific violation of the reading process (dyslexia).

Amnesia- memory impairment that occurs with various local lesions of the brain.

Anamnesis- a set of information about the disease and development of the child.

Anticipations- the ability to anticipate the manifestation of the results of an action, "anticipatory reflection", for example, the premature recording of sounds included in the final syllables of a word.

Apraxia- violation of voluntary purposeful movements and actions, which is not a consequence of paralysis and paresis, but related to disorders of the highest level of organization of motor acts.

Articulation- the activity of the speech organs associated with the pronunciation of speech sounds and their various complexes that make up syllables, words.

Asthenia- weakness.

Asphyxia- suffocation of the fetus and newborn - cessation of breathing with continued cardiac activity due to a decrease or loss of excitability of the respiratory center.

Ataxia- Disorder of coordination of movements, observed in various diseases of the brain.

Atrophy- pathological structural changes in tissues associated with inhibition of metabolism in them.

Audiogram- a graphical representation of the data of a hearing examination using a device (audiometer).

Aphasia- complete or partial loss of speech due to local lesions of the brain. Main forms: acoustic-gnostic (sensory) - violation of phonemic perception; acoustic-mnestic - impaired auditory-speech memory; semantic - a violation of the understanding of logical and grammatical structures; afferent motor - kinesthetic oral and articulatory apraxia; efferent motor - violation of the kinetic basis of a series of speech movements; dynamic - violation of the consistent organization of the utterance, planning of the utterance.

Afferent analysis and synthesis- analysis and synthesis of impulses coming from receptors, from the periphery to the cerebral cortex, which controls the execution of a separate movement, is organized simultaneously, spatially.

Bradilalia- pathologically slow pace of speech.

Broca center zone- the center of motor speech, located in the back of the lower frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere.

Verbalism- a disadvantage in which the verbal expression in children does not correspond to specific ideas and concepts.

Wernicke Center (Zone)- the center of speech perception, located in the posterior part of the upper temporal gyrus of the left hemisphere.

inner speech- pronounced silently, hidden, takes place in the process of thinking.

Higher mental functions- complex, life-forming systemic mental processes, social in origin.

Hertz (Hz)- international unit of measurement of oscillation frequency.

Hyperacusia- Hypersensitivity to quiet sounds, indifferent to others. Seen in sensory disturbances.

hemiplegia- defeat on one half of the body of the function of arbitrary mobility, i.e. paralysis (paresis) of the muscles of one half of the body.

Gammacism g, g".

Hyperkinesis- excessive involuntary movements arising from disorders of the nervous system.

hypoxia- oxygen starvation of the body.

Deontology- the term comes from the Greek word "deon" - due. “Should” is how a speech therapist should build his relationship with a person with a speech disorder, with his relatives and with colleagues at work. Pedagogical D. includes the doctrine of pedagogical ethics, aesthetics, and morality.

Deprivation- insufficient satisfaction of basic needs.

Decompensation- a disorder in the activity of an organ or an organism as a whole due to a violation of compensation (a complex process of restructuring the body's functions in case of violations or loss of any function due to diseases, injuries).

Dyslalia- violation of sound pronunciation with normal hearing and intact innervation of the speech apparatus.

dysarthria- violation of the pronunciation side of speech, due to insufficient innervation of the speech apparatus.

Stuttering- violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, due to the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus.

Compensation- a complex, multifaceted process of restructuring mental functions in case of violation or loss of any body functions.

Cappacism- lack of pronunciation of sounds k, k".

kinesthetic sensations- sensations of the position and movement of organs.

Clonic convulsions- short-term contractions and relaxation of muscles that quickly follow one after another.

Communicative function of speech- function of communication.

Contamination- erroneous reproduction of words, which consists in combining syllables related to different words into one word.

Correction of speech disorders- correction of speech defects. The terms "elimination", "overcoming speech disorders" are also used.

speech therapy- special pedagogical science of speech disorders, methods of their prevention, detection, elimination by means of special training and education.

Lambdacism l, l".

Function localization- the connection of physiological and mental functions with the work of certain parts of the cerebral cortex.

Logorrhoea- incoherent speech flow as a manifestation of speech activity; observed in sensory disorders.

facial expressions- movements of the muscles of the face, eyes, reflecting a variety of human feelings: joy, sadness, anxiety, surprise, fear, etc.

Mutism- cessation of verbal communication with others due to mental trauma.

microglossia- congenital underdevelopment of the language (macro-massive language).

Underdevelopment of speech- a qualitatively low level of formation in comparison with the norm of a particular speech function or speech system as a whole.

Speech disorders(synonyms for speech disorders, speech disorders, speech defects, speech defects, speech deviations, speech pathology) - deviations in the speaker's speech from the language norm adopted in this language environment, manifested in partial (partial) disorders (sound pronunciation, voice, tempo and rhythm etc.) and caused by a disorder in the normal functioning of the psychophysiological mechanisms of speech activity. From the point of view of the communicative theory of N. r. - There are violations of verbal communication.

Speech Development Disorders- a group of various types of deviations in the development of speech, which has a different etiology, pathogenesis, and severity. At N. r. R. the course of speech development is disturbed, inconsistencies with normal ontogenesis appear, a lag in pace.

neurolinguistics- a branch of psychological science, borderline for psychology, neurology and linguistics.

neuroontogenesis- maturation of the nervous system.

Neuron nerve cell with processes (dendrites and axon). Neurons are divided into afferent, carrying impulses to the center, efferent, carrying information from the center to the periphery, and intercalary, in which the preliminary processing of impulses occurs.

neuropathy- constitutional nervousness (increased excitability of the nervous system).

Negativism- unmotivated resistance of the child to the influence of an adult on him. Speech n. stubborn refusal to communicate.

Obturator a device for closing a defect in the hard palate with its clefts.

Orthodontics a branch of medicine that deals with the study, prevention and treatment of deformities of the dentition and maxillofacial skeleton.

Reflected speech--- repeated after someone.

General underdevelopment of speech- various complex speech disorders, in which the formation of all components of the speech system related to the sound and semantic side is impaired in children.

Postural reflexes- congenital reflexes, manifested in a change in posture and muscle tone, depending on the position of the head.

Psychological(including speech) system- complex relationships that arise between individual functions in the process of development.

Paraphasia- violation of speech utterance, manifested in the incorrect use of sounds (literal) or words (verbal) in oral and written speech.

perseveration pathological repetition or persistent reproduction of any action or syllable, word. At the heart of II. are the processes associated with the delay of the termination signal.

Pathogenesis- a branch of pathology that studies the mechanisms of the occurrence and development of diseases.

prenatal- pertaining to the period before birth.

Psychotherapy- Psychic treatment.

Decay of speech- loss of existing speech skills and communication skills due to local brain damage.

Relaxation- relaxation, lowering the tone of skeletal muscles.

Reflexes of oral automatism congenital R., caused in the mouth.

Reflex- forbidding position - a special posture of the child, in which maximum relaxation is achieved.

Rotacism- incorrect pronunciation of sounds r, r.

Syndrome- a combination of signs (symptoms).

Simultaneous- analysis and synthesis, which has a certain integral (simultaneous) character.

successive- analysis and synthesis, implemented in parts (consecutive), and not holistically.

Sensory- feeling (opposite - motor, motor).

Syntagma- syntactic intonation-semantic unit.

Somatic- bodily.

Synapse- a special education, carried out by the connection between nerve cells.

Sigmatism- lack of pronunciation of whistling and hissing sounds.

Complicated (combined) defect- a defect in which certain connections are traced, for example, speech and visual insufficiency and other combinations.

Phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment- violation of the processes of formation of the pronunciation system of the native language in children with various speech disorders due to defects in the perception and pronunciation of phonemes.

Related speech- Simultaneous joint pronunciation of words and phrases by two or more persons.

convulsions- involuntary muscle contractions.

tahilalia- pathologically accelerated rate of speech.

tonic spasm- Prolonged muscle contraction and resulting tension.

Tremor- involuntary rhythmic vibrations of the limbs, voice, tongue.

risk factor- various conditions of the external or internal sphere of the body, contributing to the development of pathological conditions.

Risk group- a group of people who have the same risk factor for the development of a particular pathology.

Phonemic analysis and synthesis- mental actions to analyze or synthesize the sound structure of a word.

Phonemic perception- special mental actions to differentiate phonemes and establish the sound structure of a word.

phonemic hearing- fine systematized hearing, which has the ability to carry out the operations of distinguishing and recognizing phonemes that make up the sound shell of a word (F. s. is close in meaning to F. w.).

Phonopedia- a complex of pedagogical influence aimed at activating and coordinating the neuromuscular apparatus of the larynx, correcting breathing and the personality of the student.

Extirpation(larynx) - removal.

Etiology- the doctrine of causes.

echolalia- automatic repetition of words after their playback.

Cerebral- cerebral.

Language - a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication, mental activity, a way of transmitting information from generation to generation and storing it.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Ivan Sechenov

Sechenov Ivan Mikhailovich (08/01/13/1829, Tyoply Stan 02/11/15/1905, Moscow), Russian naturalist-materialist, founder of the national physiological school and natural science trends in psychology, honorary academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1904; corresponding member 1869 ).

He graduated from the Main Engineering School in St. Petersburg (1848) and the Medical Faculty of Moscow University (1856). In 1856 59 he worked in the laboratories of J. Müller, E. Dubois-Reymond, and F. Hoppe-Seyler (Berlin), O. Funke (Leipzig), K. Ludwig (Vienna), and H. Helmholtz (Heidelberg). Abroad, Sechenov prepared his doctoral dissertation Materials for the future physiology of alcohol intoxication, which he successfully defended in 1860 at the Medico-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg. In the same year, he headed the department of physiology of this academy, where he soon organized one of the first physiological laboratories in Russia. For a course of lectures on animal electricity at the Medico-Surgical Academy, he was awarded the Demidov Prize of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1863). After leaving the academy in 1870, in 1871 76 he headed the department of physiology at the Novorossiysk University (Odessa); in 1876 88 he was a professor of physiology at St. Petersburg University, where he also organized a physiological laboratory. At the same time, he lectured at the Bestuzhev Higher Women's Courses, one of the founders of which he was. Since 1889 Privatdozent, since 1891 professor of physiology at Moscow University. In 1901 he retired, but continued experimental work, as well as teaching at the Prechistensky courses for workers (1903 04).

The name of Sechenov is associated with the creation of the first physiological scientific school in Russia, which was formed and developed at the Medico-Surgical Academy, Novorossiysk, St. Petersburg and Moscow Universities. At the Medico-Surgical Academy, Sechenov introduced the method of demonstrating an experiment into lecture practice. This contributed to the emergence of a close connection between the pedagogical process and research work and to a large extent predetermined Sechenov's success on the path of creating a scientific school. The physiological laboratory organized by Sechenov at the Medico-Surgical Academy was the center of research in the field not only of physiology, but also of pharmacology, toxicology and clinical medicine. At the beginning of 1861, Sechenov delivered the first public lectures on the subject of the so-called plant acts in animal life. They affirmed the principle of the unity of the organism and the environment, put forward the idea of ​​self-regulation, inextricably linked with the idea of ​​homeostasis. Already in the Theses for his doctoral dissertation, Sechenov put forward a position about the originality of reflexes, the centers of which lie in the brain, and a number of ideas that contributed to the subsequent study of the brain. In Paris, in the laboratory of C. Bernard (1862), Sechenov experimentally tested the hypothesis of the influence of brain centers on motor activity. He found that chemical stimulation of the medulla oblongata and visual tubercles with salt crystals delayed the reflex motor reaction of the frog's limb. The experiments were demonstrated by Sechenov in Paris to Bernard, in Berlin and Vienna to Dubois-Reymond, Ludwig and E. Brucke. The thalamic center of inhibition of the reflex reaction was called the Sechenov center, and the phenomenon of central inhibition was called Sechenov's inhibition. From that moment on, the assumption about the inhibitory effect of one part of the nervous system on another, expressed by Hippocrates, has become an accepted doctrine. In the same year, Sechenov published an Addendum to the Teaching on the Nerve Centers Delaying Reflected Movements, in which the question was discussed whether there are specific inhibitory mechanisms in the brain or whether the action of inhibitory centers extends to all muscular systems and functions. Thus, the concept of non-specific brain systems was first put forward.

Upon his return in May 1863 from abroad to Russia, Sechenov, at the suggestion of N. A. Nekrasov, prepared an article for Sovremennik An attempt to introduce physiological foundations into mental processes. Censorship banned the publication of the article, citing materialist propaganda and a reprehensible title. This work, called Sechenov Reflexes of the Brain, was published in the same year in the Medical Bulletin, and in 1866 came out as a separate edition. The publication of this work marked the beginning of the era of objective psychology. Sechenov showed that since reflexes are impossible without an external stimulus, mental activity is stimulated by stimuli that act on the sense organs. An essential addition was introduced into the doctrine of reflexes: they were made dependent not only on existing stimuli, but also on previous influences. The preservation of traces in the central nervous system acted as the basis of memory, inhibition as a mechanism for the selective orientation of behavior, the work of the amplifying mechanism of the brain as the substrate of motivation. The Reflexes of the Brain clearly articulates the foundations of Sechenov's psychological outlook, testifying to his materialistic understanding of the psyche.

By 1863 68 the final formation of Sechenov's physiological school dates back. For a number of years he and his students studied the physiology of intercentral relations. The most significant results of these studies were published in his work Physiology of the nervous system (1866). At the same time, Sechenov edited translations of books by foreign scientists. In 1867, Sechenov's manual Physiology of the Sense Organs was published. Revised work of Apatomie und Physiologie der Sinnesorganc von A. Fick. 1862 64. Vision, and in 1871 72, under his editorship, a translation of Charles Darwin's work "The Descent of Man" was published in Russia. Sechenov's merit is not only the spread of Darwinism, but also the application of his ideas to the problems of physiology and psychology. He can rightly be considered a forerunner of the development of evolutionary physiology in Russia.

Sechenov studied in depth various areas of philosophy and psychology, argued with representatives of various philosophical and psychological trends (K. D. Kavelin, G. Struve). In 1873, Psychological Studies were published, combining Reflexes of the Brain (4th ed.), Kavelin's objections, and an article to whom and how to develop psychology. The most important contribution of Sechenov to psychology consisted in ... a radical shift in the starting point of psychological thinking from directly given phenomena of consciousness, which for centuries was considered the first reality for the cognizing mind, to objective behavior (M. G. Yaroshevsky, History of Psychology, 1966).

In the 90s, Sechenov published a series of works on problems of psychophysiology and the theory of knowledge (Impressions and Reality, 1890; On Objective Thinking from a Physiological Point of View, 1894), significantly reworking the epistemological treatise Elements of Thought (2nd edition, 1903). Based on the achievements of the physiology of the sense organs and the study of the functions of the motor apparatus, Sechenov criticizes agnosticism and develops ideas about the muscle as an organ for reliable knowledge of the spatio-temporal relations of things. According to Sechenov, sensory signals sent by a working muscle make it possible to build images of external objects, as well as to relate objects to each other and thus serve as the bodily basis of elementary forms of thinking.

These ideas about muscle sensitivity stimulated the development of the modern theory of the mechanism of sensory perception. They contained the principle of feedback between the effects of the work of the muscle and the signals coming from it to the nerve centers regulating this work. Thus, the activity of sensory systems (in particular, the visual system) was considered from the point of view of its self-regulation. Sechenov defends the materialistic interpretation of all neuropsychic manifestations (including consciousness and will) and the approach to the organism as a whole, which was accepted by modern physiology and psychology.

At the Novorossiysk University, Sechenov carried out studies on the effect of electrical stimuli on the nerve (1872), locomotion in a frog, and the effect of the vagus nerve on the heart (1873). At the same time, Sechenov became interested in the physiology of gas exchange and the respiratory function of the blood.

After returning to St. Petersburg in 1876, Sechenov began studying the chemistry of solutions; he establishes the law of solubility of gases in aqueous solutions of electrolytes. He gives public lectures on the elements of visual thinking, which in 1878 he revised and published under the title Elements of Thought. In 1881 82 Sechenov began a new cycle of work on central braking. They discovered spontaneous oscillations of biocurrents in the medulla oblongata.

In the autumn of 1889 at Moscow University, Sechenov delivered a course of lectures on physiology, which became the basis of the generalizing work Physiology of the Nerve Centers (1891). In this work, an analysis was carried out of various nervous phenomena from unconscious reactions in spinal animals to higher forms of perception in humans. The last part of this work is devoted to the questions experimental psychology. Later, together with M. N. Shaternikov, Sechenov developed a theory of the composition of the lung air. In 1894 he published Physiological Criteria for Setting the Length of the Working Day, and in 1901 an Outline of Man's Work Movements. Of considerable interest is also the work of Sechenov, Scientific Activities of Russian Universities in Natural Science over the Last Twenty-five Years, written and published in 1883.

In the homeland of Sechenov, a monument was erected to him; his name was given to the 1st Moscow Medical Institute (1955), the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1956); established an award. Sechenov, awarded by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR every 3 years to Soviet scientists for outstanding research in physiology.




(1829-1905) - a great Russian scientist, the founder of the national physiological school and materialistic psychology in Russia, corresponding member. (1869) and honorary member (1904) of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

In 1848 he graduated from the Main Engineering School in St. Petersburg and was sent to serve in a sapper battalion near Kyiv. In 1851, Mr.. resigned and entered the medical. Faculty of Moscow University. After graduating from the university in 1856, he was sent abroad to prepare for a professorship, worked in the largest laboratories under the guidance of I. Muller, E. Dubois-Reymond, K. Ludwig, K. Bernard, etc. In 1860, according to returning to his homeland was defended by Dr. dissertation "Materials for the future physiology of alcohol intoxication" and was elected professor of the Department of Physiology of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy. During his work, the department of the academy became the center of propaganda of materialistic ideas in biology and medicine. Since 1870, I. M. Sechenov is a professor of the department of physiology of the Novorossiysk University in Odessa, and since 1876 a professor of the department of physiology of the physico-mathematical faculty of St. Petersburg University. In 1889, I. M. Sechenov began working for honey. f-those of Moscow un-that in a post of the assistant professor of department of physiology, and in 1891 becomes its professor and head. In 1901, I. M. Sechenov refused to head the department in order, in his words, "to clear the way for young forces." Until the end of his life, I. M. Sechenov continued to work in the laboratory at the department, created and equipped by him at his own expense.

I. M. Sechenov belongs to that galaxy of Russian scientists of the 19th century, who are distinguished by an amazing versatility of talent and scientific interests. N. G. Chernyshevsky, I. T. Glebov, F. I. Inozemtsev, and K. F. Rulye played an important role in the formation of the materialistic worldview of I. M. Sechenov. The name of I. M. Sechenov is associated with the development of many problems in various fields of physiology, which are of great practical and theoretical significance. He owns research on the physiology of respiration and blood, the dissolution of gases in liquids, gas exchange and energy exchange, alcohol poisoning, the physiology of c. n. with. and neuromuscular physiology, electrophysiology. Oya the creator of new directions in fiziol. science, he laid the foundations of materialistic psychology.

A significant part of the experimental studies of I. M. Sechenov is devoted to the study of the patterns of distribution of gases in the blood, in particular, the dissolution, binding and transportation of carbon dioxide. With the help of a device designed by him - an absorptiometer, which made it possible to analyze the absorption of gases by whole blood and plasma with great accuracy, he made a fundamentally new conclusion for that time that erythrocytes play an extremely important role in the exchange of CO2. Having studied the absorption of CO2 by various salt solutions, he established an empirical formula reflecting the relationship between the solubility of gases in the electrolyte and the concentration of the latter. This formula is known in science as the formula, or equation, of Sechenov.

Studying the features of gas exchange between blood and tissues and between the body and the environment, I. M. Sechenov showed that the process of binding oxygen by hemoglobin favors the easier release of carbon dioxide from the blood. The study of the causes of the death of two French astronauts who climbed on a Zenith balloon to a height of 8600 m,? led him to formulate the theory of the constancy of the gas composition of alveolar air (1882) as the most important condition for the normal existence of an organism. These studies subsequently contributed to the development of a new direction in Russian physiology - aviation and space physiology.

Works on studying of gases in blood are connected with researches of gas exchange in an organism, to-rye were carried out by I. M. Sechenov together with M. N. Shaternikov. This was the beginning of the study of energy costs in humans during different types physical and mental labor. For this purpose, they built a portable gas analyzer, which made it possible to conduct long-term studies of gas exchange in a person both at rest and in motion.

Of particular scientific importance are the works of I. M. Sechenov in the field of neurophysiology, which are closely connected with his psychological and philosophical searches aimed at creating a holistic view of the body and its relationship with the environment. IM Sechenov owns the discovery of central inhibition (see). a cut brought him worldwide fame and entered science under the name Sechenov's inhibition (see). He first described two other fundamental phenomena in c. n. s. - sum-tion of excitations and aftereffect. Researches in the field of electrophysiol were continuation of these works. brain stem activity. He was the first (1882) to discover and describe the rhythmic potentials of the medulla oblongata. It was the world's first research, at Krom elektrofiziol. the method was applied to the analysis of activity of c. n. with.

In subsequent years, the scientific interests of I. M. Sechenov were focused on the study of patterns and fiziol. features labor activity human, physiol. fundamentals of the regime of work and rest. His article "Physiological criteria for setting the length of the working day" (1895) was in fact the first special study in the world literature devoted to the scientific substantiation of the extremely topical and politically important issue of the length of the working day of workers. These studies formed the basis of a new section of physiology - the physiology of labor.

I. M. Sechenov is rightfully considered the founder of Russian materialistic physiology c. n. and psychology. He was the first to use strictly scientific methods to study complex phenomena in the activity of the brain, and opposed the existing idealistic views on the processes of mental activity. He not only considered mental activity a function of the brain, but also consistently defended the position that this activity is determined by the conditions of existence. According to the scientist, mental phenomena "are subject to the same immutable laws as the phenomena of the material world, because only under such a condition is it possible to truly scientific development of mental acts."

I. M. Sechenov, who convincingly proved that “all acts of conscious and unconscious life are reflexes in terms of their origin”, for the analysis of behavior both in the physiology of the nervous system and in psychology, he chose a reflex, which is a natural and deterministic reaction of the body to the action of the environment. environment (see Reflex, Reflex theory). A new step taken by I. M. Sechenov in the history of materialistic psychology is that he considered the mental component as an integral part of the brain reflex, as a necessary link in that category of reflexes, to-rye he called reflexes with mental complications. The objective method of studying mental phenomena developed by I. M. Sechenov was developed in the works of V. M. Bekhterev, I. P. Pavlov and received worldwide recognition. The idea of ​​I. M. Sechenov about the reflex basis of mental activity was the foundation for the construction of psychophysiology, it contributed to the creation and development of the physiology of art. n. d.

The works of I. M. Sechenov on the study of various sections of physiology were aimed at understanding the integral activity of the organism in the unity of its bodily and mental manifestations, in its inseparable connection with the material world. In his studies, I. M. Sechenov proceeded from the basic principle of materialistic natural science - the unity of the organism and the environment. “An organism without an external environment that supports its existence is impossible,” he wrote, “therefore, in scientific definition The organism must also include the environment that affects it. Since the existence of an organism is impossible without the latter, disputes about what is more important in life, whether the environment or the body itself, do not have the slightest sense.

The idea of ​​the unity of the organism and the environment, the strict causality of all manifestations of mental activity was most fully developed in the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" (1863), called by I. P. Pavlov "a brilliant stroke of Russian scientific thought." In this work, I. M. Sechenov for the first time establishes an inseparable connection between the physiological and the mental and develops the idea of ​​“transferring mental phenomena, from the side of the way they are performed, onto physiological soil”, thereby emphasizing that the “mental” activity of a person obeys the same laws , which is corporal, and can be studied with the help of fiziol. methods.

IM Sechenov laid the foundations for the evolutionary interpretation of physiological functions. driving forces According to I. M. Sechenov, evolutions are “the influences on the organisms of the environment in which they live, or more precisely, the conditions of their existence”, to which they must adapt. It is they who act as a powerful factor of variability, the transformation of simple forms into complex ones, the generation of new biological forms and processes. The peculiarity of Sechenov's evolutionary biological approach lies in the fact that it extended to the highest level of organization - nervous system. His teaching embodied the inextricable link between natural science and materialism. Therefore, behind him, in principle, far from direct active participation in political events, the reputation of "an inveterate materialist, who tries to promote materialism not only in science, but also in life itself" was established.

The activities of I. M. Sechenov largely contributed to the development of domestic scientific medicine. His theoretical work and views had a huge impact on the formation of advanced ideas of Russian doctors. They contributed to the development of fiziol. directions in psychiatry, neurology, therapy, etc.

In the life and work of I. M. Sechenov, the features of a great scientist-thinker and an outstanding teacher, educator of creative youth were harmoniously combined. He sought to introduce the principles of experimental physiology and the materialistic worldview into the practice of teaching physiology to university students. He is credited with founding the first physiological school in Russia. Such talented scientists as B. F. Verigo, H. E. Vvedensky. V. V. Pashutin, N. P. Kravkov, G. V. Khlopin, I. R. Tarkhanov, M. N. Shaternikov, A. F. Samoilov were his students.

IM Sechenov was a brilliant popularizer of natural science knowledge among the general population. This is evidenced by his numerous public lectures, lectures to workers at Prechistensky courses, as well as translations and editing of scientific and popular science books. He was an ardent supporter of women's medical education (see). In the laboratories he created, he attracted women to active scientific work. Under his leadership, for the first time, Russian female doctors N. P. Suslova and M. A. Sechenova-Bokova prepared Dr. dissertations.

I. M. Sechenov was an honorary member of many scientific about-in Russia, was elected honorary chairman of the first international psychological congress in Paris (1889). Versatile scientific and social activity I. M. Sechenov left a deep mark in many areas of physiology, his theoretical views and research had a huge impact on the formation of the materialistic views of Russian doctors and physiologists. The ideas of I. M. Sechenov found worldwide recognition and largely determined the future development of Soviet physiology and psychology. The 1st MMI is named after I.M. Sechenov.

Compositions: Materials for the future physiology of alcohol intoxication, dia., SPb., 1860; Autobiographical notes, M., 1907, 1952; Collected works, vols. 1-2, M., 1907-1908; Selected works, M., 1935; Selected Works, vols. 1-2, Moscow, 1952-1956; Lectures on Physiology, M., 1974.

Bibliography: Anokhin P.K. From Descartes to Pavlov, p. 70, M., 1945; Artemov H. M. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, 1829-1905, Bibliogr. index, L., 1979; Vvedensky H. E. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, Proceedings of St. Petersburg. Society of Naturalists, vol. 36, c. 2, p. 1, 1906; Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (To the 150th anniversary of his birth), ed. P. G. Kostyuk et al., M., 1980; K a -ganov V. M. Worldview of I. M. Sechenov, M., 1948; Koshtoyants X. S., I. M. Sechenov. Moscow, 1950. Kuzmin M. K., Makarov V. A. and And in and to and V. P. N., I. M. Sechenov and medical science, M., 1979; Sechenov I. M. and materialistic psychology, ed. S. L. Rubinstein. Moscow, 1957. Sh a-ternikov M. N. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, Scientific Word, No. 10, p. 23, 1905; Yaroshevsky M. G. Sechenov and world psychological thought, M., 1981.

V. A. Makarov.

The fate of Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, an outstanding physiologist, was not easy. In his biography, successes were replaced by failures, but at each stage life path the scientist invariably remained true to himself, his ideals and principles. He tirelessly fought for the light of science and reason, for enlightenment, even if the censorship branded his writings as “dangerous” and “undermining the moral foundations.” The rich scientific heritage of Ivan Mikhailovich is still of interest to specialists from all over the world.

Childhood and youth

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov was born on August 13 (according to the old style - the 1st), 1829 in the village of Teply Stan, Kurmysh district, Simbirsk province. The father of the scientist was a small estate nobleman Mikhail Alekseevich Sechenov.

In the past, he served in the Preobrazhensky Guards Regiment, and after retiring, he settled in the estate with his wife and children. Among the neighbors, Mikhail Alekseevich was known as a black sheep - after the man married the serf Anisya Yegorovna, the local nobility looked down on him.

The wife gave Sechenov 8 children, of which Ivan was the youngest. Until the age of 14, the boy never traveled outside his native village. He grew up mostly in a female environment. The older brothers studied in the city, and there were no comrades of his age among their peers. The parents were going to send their son to the Kazan gymnasium, to the brothers, but because of the death of his father financial situation families were shaken. Therefore, Ivan studied at home, a village priest and a governess became his mentors.

In 1843, Sechenov Jr. went to St. Petersburg, where he entered the Main Engineering School. Within its walls, the young man mastered physics, chemistry, mathematics and other sciences. After completing his studies, in 1848, Ivan Mikhailovich was assigned to serve in the Kyiv engineer battalion. However, the young man soon realized that the local way of life was not for him. He was sickened by the cruelty of the military, the servility of junior ranks to seniors. In 1850, Sechenov resigned.

Ivan Mikhailovich spent some time at home, in Teply Stan. And in the autumn of the same 1850 he left for Moscow. In the capital, the young man became a volunteer at the medical faculty of Moscow University. In the summer of 1851, having become proficient in anatomy, botany and Latin, he withstood entrance examination and joined the ranks of the students. At first, under the influence of Professor Fyodor Inozemtsev, he leaned towards surgery. However, already in his senior years, Sechenov made a choice in favor of physiology.

In 1856 young man had to pass the final exams. The Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Nikolay Anke, suggested that the talented student take not ordinary, but doctoral exams. They, of course, were more difficult and obliged the graduate to write and defend a dissertation. Sechenov agreed and soon passed his doctoral exams along with fellow students Eduard Junge and Pavel Einbrodt.

After that, Ivan Mikhailovich, knowing full well that he had learned only the basics at Moscow University, decided to go abroad. He refused his father's inheritance and, having received 6 thousand rubles from his brothers. compensation, went to Germany. There, the young man attended lectures by Johann Muller, Emile Dubois-Reymond and other prominent physiologists. In addition, he worked in laboratories, studying chemistry and making experiments. Sechenov outlined the results of his research in a scientific article that made him a name in the circles of European physiologists.

Medicine and scientific activity

In 1860 Ivan Mikhailovich defended his doctoral dissertation. The topic was as follows: "Materials for the future physiology of alcohol intoxication." In order to understand the issue in detail, Sechenov independently designed a “blood pump”, the action of which clearly showed how alcohol affects the absorption of oxygen by the blood.

Ivan Sechenov

How alcohol is excreted from the body, what chemical processes it suppresses in tissues, how muscular and nervous activity changes under its influence - the physiologist comprehensively covered all these topics in his work.

At the invitation of Professor Ivan Glebov, Sechenov began work at the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy. His lectures, full of facts and the latest scientific data, aroused keen interest from the listeners. One of the merits of Ivan Mikhailovich is that he was the first to emphasize the relationship between the organism and the external environment - this idea was reflected in the article “On Plant Acts in Animal Life” (1861).

In addition to physiology, in his writings Sechenov dealt with the pressing problems of biology, medicine and other sciences. In 1862, while in Paris, Ivan Mikhailovich worked in the laboratory of the French physician Claude Bernard. Here one of his main discoveries took place: the scientist proved that human nervous activity consists of two incessant processes - irritable and inhibitory. This phenomenon is called "central (or Sechenov's) inhibition." Sechenov set out the details of the discovery in a work that was published in 1963.

Returning from abroad, Ivan Mikhailovich published lectures “On Animal Electricity” (1963) in printed form. For this work, the physiologist was awarded the Demidov Prize. The “Reflexes of the Brain” (1963) that followed it became a kind of pinnacle of Sechenov's works. Two parts of this work were published in No. 47 and No. 48 of the Medical Bulletin. A separate edition was published in 1966.

The book, which refuted previous views on the mental activity of man, caused a scandal. According to the censorship, Sechenov's work undermined the religious, moral and political foundations. The circulation of "Reflexes of the Brain" was arrested, they tried to start a lawsuit against the scientist. Ivan Mikhailovich reacted calmly to the persecution, saying that if the case went to court, he would demonstrate to the judges the experience with the frog and prove his case.

The government had to drop the charges against Sechenov and release the essay into free circulation. However, until the end of his life, Ivan Mikhailovich remained “on the note” of the tsarist government. His scientific research was subjected to strict scrutiny and, in addition to academic censorship, was submitted for consideration to a higher censorship committee. In 1869, Sechenov recommended a professor at the Medico-Surgical Academy and, when he was voted out, resigned in protest.

Subsequently, Ivan Mikhailovich worked at Novorossiysk, St. Petersburg and Moscow universities. In 1891, at his native university, he took the post of professor in the department of physiology. At the same time, the scientist did not stop conducting scientific work and experimenting.

He studied psychology, physiology muscle activity and physiology of labor, physical chemistry of blood gases. In 1901, Sechenov resigned, retaining the right to use the physiological laboratory. A photograph of 1902 has been preserved, in which a physiologist is captured making an experiment in studying the rhythm of the work of the muscles of the hand.

Personal life

In 1848, while in Kyiv, Ivan Mikhailovich became a frequent guest in the house of a certain doctor. There he met the daughter of the owner of the house, a young widow, Olga Alexandrovna. Sechenov remembered her as an outstanding, well-read person, an intelligent and lively companion. Not surprisingly, the young man soon began to have romantic feelings for her. Ivan understood that his love was unlikely to be mutual, nevertheless, he took the news of Olga Alexandrovna's new marriage painfully.

Sechenov later noted that this episode prompted him to resign and receive university education. It is interesting that Ivan Mikhailovich met his wife, standing up for the availability of women's education in Russia. As early as 1861, Maria Alexandrovna Bokova and her friend Nadezhda Prokofievna Suslova attended lectures by the scientist at the Medico-Surgical Academy as volunteers. Both women were about to take their matriculation exams, and Sechenov willingly helped them prepare.

Maria was married. Both she herself and her husband Pyotr Ivanovich Bokov became close friends with the physiologist. Sechenov often visited their house. When both students successfully passed the exams, Ivan Mikhailovich became the guest of honor at the celebration organized in honor of the “graduates”.

In 1862, the scientist left for Paris, but his communication with Bokova and Suslova did not stop. Women sent him detailed reports on their scientific research, while Sechenov sent in response detailed analyzes of their mistakes and achievements.

Soon after the return of Ivan Mikhailovich to Russia, it became clear that he and Maria were connected by a feeling much deeper and more cordial than simple friendship. Bokova's husband, a truly understanding and noble person, did not put obstacles in the way of people who love each other. Moreover, when Sechenov and his chosen one were married in a civil marriage, Pyotr Ivanovich remained a sincere friend of their family.

In 1864, a law was passed prohibiting women from studying at the academy and engaging in scientific activities. The students of Ivan Mikhailovich had to leave their studies. Wishing to continue their studies, Suslova and Bokova-Sechenova went to the University of Zurich (Switzerland). Returning to Russia, Maria took up medical practice, in addition, together with her husband, she translated a number of textbooks on medicine and physiology.

According to contemporaries, Sechenov was happy in his personal life. Their union with Mary was based not only on love, but also on a common interest. The couple spent the summer months in Klepenino, a tiny village near Rzhev, which Bokova-Sechenova inherited from her parents. In a letter to Nadezhda Suslova, the physiologist's wife shared the details of their rural holidays: during the day they traveled around the surrounding forests and fields, and spent the evenings reading.

Death

Sechenov died on November 15 (2), 1905. The cause of death was lobar pneumonia. Only the closest people saw off Ivan Mikhailovich on his last journey. A magnificent funeral for the professor, who made a colossal contribution to world science, was not arranged - such was the will of the deceased.

At first, his grave was located at the Vagankovsky cemetery, then the ashes were transferred to Novodevichy. In memory of the outstanding physiologist, a prize was established; a number of institutions (for example, the Moscow Medical Institute) and streets bear his name. And the native village of Ivan Mikhailovich, Teply Stan, is now called Sechenovo.

Proceedings

• 1861 - “On vegetable acts in animal life”
• 1863 - “On Animal Electricity”
• 1866 - "Reflexes of the brain"
• 1879 - "Elements of Thought"
• 1888 - “On the absorption of CO2 by salt solutions and strong acids”
• 1891 - “Physiology of nerve centers”
• 1895 - “Physiological criteria for setting the length of the working day”
• 1896 - “Impression and Reality”
• 1901 - “Essay on the working movements of man”
• 1902 - “Objective Thought and Reality”