Spiritual indicators of quality of life. Quality of life as a socio-economic concept

Finance 

As noted above, the main indicators of the quality of life of the population are: vital statistics; indicators of migration movement of the population; labor force indicators; employment and unemployment indicators; indicators of education level.

Natural population movement - the processes of fertility and mortality, which ensure natural population growth, as well as the processes of marriage and divorce.

The initial characteristics of this indicator are absolute values. The absolute numbers of births and deaths, marriages and divorces are obtained based on current accounting data. This group of indicators includes:

  • · number of births, (N);
  • · number of deaths (M);
  • · natural population growth (De);
  • · number of registered marriages (Sbr);
  • · number of registered divorces (Sр).

If the number of births exceeds the number of deaths, natural increase is positive, and if the number of deaths more number births, natural increase is negative.

Migration (mechanical) movement is the movement of the population across the borders of the country and its territorial divisions, associated with a change of place of residence for a more or less long period.

Absolute indicators of migration movement of the population are the number of arrivals (immigrants) in a given locality(Spr) and the number of departures (emigrants, Svyb).

Absolute indicators of population movement are interval indicators; they are calculated for certain periods of time (per month, per year, etc.).

To characterize population reproduction and migration, a number of relative intensity indicators are calculated. These are demographic rates: birth rate, death rate, natural increase, marriage rate, divorce rate, arrival, departure, migration and general increase. They are calculated as the ratio of the corresponding number of demographic events (number of births, deaths, natural increase, number of registered marriages, divorces, number of arrivals, departures, migration and general absolute population growth) during the calendar period to the corresponding average population.

The natural increase rate can also be obtained as the difference between the total birth and death rates, and the migration increase rate as the difference between the total arrival and departure rates. The coefficient of total growth, in turn, can be calculated as the sum of the coefficients of natural and migration growth.

Demographic coefficients are calculated in ppm, i.e. per 1000 people, and are designated “‰”. To make them comparable over time, they are calculated per year.

The average annual size of the total resident population (S) is defined as the population at the beginning and end of the year divided by 2.

Thus, the average annual population of the Republic of Belarus in 2011 was 9490.5 thousand people, and the rate of natural increase was -25.9 thousand people.

The indicator of average life expectancy (e0x) is calculated by dividing the tabulated number of person-years that will be lived by those who have lived to a given age to the limit (Tx), by the tabulated number of people who have survived to this age (lx):

level of quality of life population

e0x = Tx / lx (2.1)

This indicator is one of the most important general indicators of the vitality of the population.

Labor resources are the part of the country's population that has the necessary physical development, health, education, culture, qualifications and professional knowledge to work in the national economy.

Labor resources include the following categories:

  • · population of working age;
  • · working population of working age;
  • · labor resources.

To study and analyze them, a system of indicators is used that characterizes the number of labor resources, their composition according to various criteria, load factors, replacement rates, natural and migration movements, etc.

In the Republic of Belarus, in accordance with the Constitution, the age considered to be able to work is: for men - 16-59 years and for women - 16-54 years. According to this age criterion The entire population is divided into the population aged:

  • · younger than working age (premarital age);
  • · able-bodied (working age);
  • · older than working age (after working age).

According to the definition of the Ministry of Statistics and Analysis of the Republic of Belarus, the economically active population is the part of the population that provides its labor for the production of goods and services. The economically active population includes the entire employed population, the unemployed and women on maternity leave for up to 3 years.

The Ministry of Statistics and Analysis of the Republic of Belarus includes persons employed in the economy as persons working in institutions and organizations of all forms of ownership, including small businesses; in cooperatives of all types; on farms; those engaged in entrepreneurial activities, as well as the self-employed population.

Thus, the average annual population employed in the economy in 2011 was 4654.5 thousand people.

Unemployment is a socio-economic phenomenon in which part of the labor force (economically active population) is not engaged in the production of goods and services. In real economic life, unemployment appears as an excess of labor supply over demand for it. In accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Belarus on employment, the unemployed are considered to be able-bodied citizens of working age, permanently residing in the territory of the republic, unemployed, not engaged in entrepreneurial activities, not studying in full-time educational institutions, not undergoing military service and registered with the state employment service.

A general indicator characterizing the level of official registered unemployment is the unemployment rate (level), which is calculated as the ratio of the number of unemployed to the number of economically active population and expressed as a percentage.

In 2011, the unemployment rate in the Republic of Belarus was 0.6% compared to 1.5% in 2005. Thus, the unemployment rate (level) decreased by 60.0%


0.6% : 1.5% = 0.4 or 40.0% (see Appendix A).

Important qualitative characteristics of the population are indicators of educational level. In this regard, the composition of the population in terms of literacy and level of education is studied. The degree of literacy is characterized by the literacy rate, which is calculated as the ratio of the number of people who can read or write in any language, usually aged 9-49 years, to the entire population at the same age. This figure in our republic is close to 100%, i.e. Almost complete literacy has been achieved in the republic.

The following levels of education are distinguished in the Republic of Belarus:

  • · higher professional (higher);
  • · secondary vocational (secondary special);
  • · primary vocational (vocational and technical);
  • · average general;
  • · basic general (incomplete secondary);
  • · initial general;
  • · illiterate.

To study the educational composition of the population over 15 years of age, absolute and relative values ​​of the structure (shares) and coordination are calculated both for the republic as a whole, and for the urban and rural population, by gender, by individual industries, etc. The main indicators of education, as well as the number students in institutions providing specialized secondary and higher education are shown in Appendices B and C.

Level and quality of life

The “standard of living” refers to the degree to which the material, spiritual and social needs of the population are satisfied.

The standard of living is determined by the composition and amount of needs for various goods. This indicator is limited by the ability to meet needs based on the income of the population, wages workers.

Statistical authorities use the following as general indicators of the standard of living of the population:

Gross national product per capita at comparable prices;

National income and consumption fund in it per capita;

Cost of living indices;

Real wages per worker;

Real income per capita;

Living wage;

The number and proportion of the population below the poverty line, i.e. having an income below the subsistence level.

Sources of information for assessing living standards can be:

Budget surveys;

Sociological surveys;

Censuses (general and microcensuses).

Based on budget survey data, the following is calculated:

Average per capita nominal income;

Structure of cash income of the population;

Physical volumes of purchases of certain goods;

Family spending structure;

The impact of taxation policy, price changes on the budget;

Distribution of the population by average total income per capita.

The All-Russian Center for Living Standards of the Ministry of Labor and Social Development of the Russian Federation and the All-Russian Center for Public Opinion are researching problems of living standards.

Analysis and forecasting of social security of the population is based on various indicators, the choice of which is determined by specific conditions and approaches to assessing people's well-being.

Various concepts are used to characterize the well-being of the population in Russia:

- "standard of living";

- “people's welfare”;

- "the quality of life";

- “lifestyle” and others.

The quality of life- this is the degree of development and completeness of satisfaction of the entire complex of needs and interests of people, manifested both in various types of activities and in the sense of life itself. The problem of quality of life includes the conditions, results and nature of work, demographic, ethnographic and environmental aspects of people’s existence. There are legal and political aspects to this problem related to rights and freedoms, behavioral and psychological aspects, general ideological and cultural background.

As for well-being in general, this is a kind of synthesis, a generalizing view of the social organism, including all of the above aspects. Achieving the highest possible quality of life for the population is a priority goal of a social market economy. One of the most important prerequisites for the implementation of this task is the implementation of an effective policy for the welfare of the population. The central place in welfare policy is occupied by the income of the population, their differentiation, and the constant increase in the standard of living of citizens.


There is a close relationship between the indicators; they are often associated with goals in society. Sometimes the content of the terms differs significantly.

Concept quality of life is based on the use of a certain system of indicators characterizing individual components of the standard of living presented in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1 - Indicators characterizing the standard of living of the population

Index Characteristic
Health Life expectancy, mortality rate, duration and severity of diseases, physical and mental abilities of people, their well-being.
Nutrition Regularity of nutrition, its balance, environmental friendliness of products
Education Duration and level of training, degree of mastery of scientific knowledge, availability of necessary literature in libraries
Employment and working conditions Conditions and nature of work, its intensity and efficiency, compliance with personal inclinations, abilities of people, freedom of choice of profession, working hours, annual leave, share of manual and automated labor, employment and unemployment, microclimate in the team
Living conditions Area and improvement of housing, furnishings, convenience of planning, improvement of life
Social Security Social equality, employment guarantees, provision for pensioners, temporary disability, benefits and benefits for families with children
Cloth Quality and variety of clothing, choice
Rest and free time Duration, availability, choice of your holiday, satisfaction with it
Human rights The possibility of realizing human rights, ensuring security, protection from epidemics, terrorist attacks, objectivity and humanity of legal authorities, the degree of trust in them

A quantitative characteristic of the qualitative indicator “quality of life” is “standard of living”.

On the one hand, the standard of living is determined by the composition and magnitude of needs for various goods, which are constantly changing. On the other hand, the standard of living is limited by the ability to meet needs, based on the situation in the market for goods and services, income of the population, and wages of workers. However, both the level of wages and the standard of living are determined by the scale and efficiency of production and the service sector, the state of scientific and technological progress, the cultural and educational level of the population, national characteristics, political power.

According to the influential British magazine The Economist, in terms of quality of life, Russia in 2004 was in 105th place among 111 countries. The quality of life coefficient for Russians was 4.8. First place goes to the Irish with odds of 8.3. They were followed by Switzerland, Norway, Luxembourg, Sweden, and Australia (coefficient 7.9). The USA ranked 13th. Life is worse than in Russia only in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Nigeria, Botswana, Haiti, Zimbabwe.

The Economist accepted the following as quality of life factors:

Health, including life expectancy;

Political stability and personal security;

Family life (taking into account the divorce rate);

The presence of social life, which means visiting cultural institutions and membership in trade union organizations;

Climatic conditions;

Unemployment rate in the country;

The presence of political freedoms and gender equality, which is determined by a comparative analysis of the level of salaries of men and women.

As the ranking shows, a high per capita income (on this factor Russia is in 55th place) does not at all guarantee the population’s satisfaction with life. This is evidenced by the difference in places occupied by one or another country in terms of income level and level of life satisfaction.

Code and name of criterion Rating
Russia's competitiveness
1.03. GDP per capita
2.04. Level of federal business regulation
2.08. Availability of venture capital
2.13. Effectiveness of bankruptcy law
2.16. Unit costs for equipment import
3.01. Technological excellence of countries
3.03. Foreign investment in the form of new technologies
3.06. Company R&D expenses
3.07. Government subsidies and tax incentives for innovative firms
3.08. Level of integration of education, science, production
3.17. Patenting level in the country
3.18. Population of students enrolled in secondary education
4.01. The quality of education
4.09. Brain drain
4.10. Degree of state support for motherhood and childhood
5.01. Quality of infrastructure in the country
6.01. Independence of the Judiciary
6.02. Effectiveness of federal regulations
6.07. Transparency of government policies, strategies, performance results
6.08. Favoritism in decision-making by government bodies
6.09. Degree of administrative bureaucracy
6.10. Effectiveness of Legislative Bodies
6.16. Reducing income inequality
6.17. Organized crime
6.18. Share of shadow economy
7.01. Unreasonable additional payments for export and import
7.09. Business expenses due to corruption in general
8.03. Level of monopoly in the local market
8.05. Administrative barriers to starting a new business
8.06. The effectiveness of antimonopoly policy
9.01. Customer awareness of product quality
10.02. Integration of stages life cycle product
10.03. Level of branding development
10.07. Marketing development level
11.01. Strictness of air pollution regulation
11.13. Dissemination of the environmental management system to ISO 14000 series standards

In a market economy, the most important components of the quality of life are the degree of social protection of the population, freedom of choice, improvement of the social environment, cultural, national and religious relations.

Summarizing the above, quality of life can be interpreted as an integral category that comprehensively characterizes the level and degree of well-being of freedom, social and spiritual development of a person, as well as his physical health. Among its structural components, the following main components can be identified (to a large extent conditionally, because certain relationships can be traced between them): the level of health and life expectancy of the population, the standard of living of the population, the lifestyle of the population (Fig. 12.1).

Rice. 12.1. Simplified structure of the quality of life of the population

The selection of the component “health level and life expectancy of the population” as one of the main structural components of the quality of life is due to the following consideration: in world practice, the level and dynamics of health, life expectancy are placed in first place when determining living conditions, since they are considered a basic human need , the main condition of his life.

There are many definitions of health that try to capture the diversity of this phenomenon. The approach to determining the category of health, which was proposed by scientists from the St. Petersburg Sanitary and Hygienic Medical Institute, seems constructive. The category of health is presented as a state of the structure of functions and adaptive capabilities (reserves) of a person that provide him with a given quality of life in given time and in this environment.

The category “standard of living” in comparison with the category “quality of life” is one of the more established concepts, with a fairly defined range of quantitative indicators today, important place among which are indicators of the cost of living and the size of the consumer basket.

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Railway Transport

State educational institution higher professional education

“The level and quality of life of the population”

Coursework in the discipline "Macroeconomics"

Performed

Student gr.

Supervisor

Senior Lecturer

Introduction……………………………………………………………..……...page 3

Chapter 1: Level and quality of life: essence, main indicators and criteria

§ 1.1 Standard of living: essence, minimum social standards………………………………………………………………………………...…………page 5

§ 1.2 Indicators and indicators of the quality of life of the population………………....p. 8

§ 1.3 Social standards and needs……………………………………p. 12

Chapter 2: Population income: types, sources, formation

§ 2.1 Income distribution: concepts and views of economists……….....p. 15

§ 2.2 Structure and dynamics of income of the population. Nominal and real incomes………………………………………………………………………………...........page 19

§ 2.3 The essence and reasons for differentiation of income of the population. Differentiation in wages……………………………………………………………....page 24

§ 2.4 Economic methods of government intervention in income generation……………………………………………………………………………………....….....page 29

§ 2.5 Middle class in Russia………………………………………….…….…page 32

§ 2.6 The problem of poverty in Russia and its indicators………………………... ..p. 34

§ 2.7 Social protection system……………………………….p. 37

Conclusion……………………………………………………………….…...page 40 References……………………………………………………… …………………...… .....p.42

Appendix…………………………………………………………………..…...page 43

Introduction

The ultimate goal of the socio-economic development of the country and its regions is to ensure the well-being of the population. In this regard, the question arises about the indicators of its assessment. Scientists in many countries have been searching for indicators that would most fully reflect the real socio-economic state of society for quite a long time. Among these, the most generalized, is the indicator “level and quality of life of the population.” The course work contains an analysis of the economic development of the country as a whole and the region using the proposed system of indicators for assessing the quality and standard of living of the population, taking into account the theoretical justification of the concept of “quality of life” and “standard of living” of the population. It is very important to know on what indicators the quality and standard of living depends, therefore the need for theoretical research into the relationship between the level of economic development of the country and the components of the quality of life of the population determines the relevance course work.

The relevance of the chosen topic of the course work is determined by the fact that only quantitative assessments of the level and living conditions to characterize the economic and social development of the country are not enough.

The growth of social welfare, maintenance of employment, socio-political stability, strengthening of socio-economic security is ensured by the economic growth of the national economy.

The purpose of the course work is to study the topic of the level and quality of life of the population: concept, indicators, current state in Russia.

In accordance with this goal, the following tasks were set:

1. Consider theoretical approaches to the level and quality of life of the population: concept, indicators, current state in Russia;

2. Consider such a concept as income of the population, its types, sources, formation;

3. Consider the essence and reasons for differentiation of incomes of the population, differentiation in wages;

4. Consider who makes up the middle class in Russia, and the problem of poverty, as well as its indicators;

5. Consider the system of social protection of the population;

To characterize the standard of living, a system of indicators is used:

· synthetic cost indicators (GDP, real income and real wages, cost of living, etc.);

· natural indicators characterizing the final consumption of the population (food consumption, provision of durable goods, living space, etc.);

· indicators characterizing the social aspects of life (employment and unemployment, length of the working week and vacations, life expectancy, etc.).

· human development index (HDI).

To assess the standard of living with a system of indicators, social statistics uses (but does not develop) social standards for the consumption of goods and services, wages, scholarships, pensions, and benefits. These social standards determine the system of social guarantees of the state to its citizens.

Studying the dynamics and quality of living standards of the population, its forecasting is extremely important for the sustainable, balanced and progressive development of society as a whole.

Chapter 1. Level and quality of life: essence, main indicators and criteria.

§1.1 Standard of living: essence, minimum social standards

The main goal social development is to improve the standard of living of the population.

The standard of living most often refers to the degree to which the population is provided with necessary material and intangible goods and services, the achieved level of their consumption and the degree to which people’s needs for these goods are met. The concept of “standard of living” in its modern interpretation is very capacious, covering all aspects of human activity, giving an idea of ​​the well-being of society as a whole and its individual members in particular. The standard of living of the population is the most important criterion for assessing the effectiveness of the state’s socio-economic policy. Its increase is the main goal of social development of the social state. The main components of the standard of living are: health, nutrition and income of the population, housing conditions, household property, paid services, cultural level of the population, working and leisure conditions, as well as social guarantees and social protection of the most vulnerable citizens.

There are four gradations of living standards: wealth - consumption of goods, allowing for the comprehensive development of a person; normal standard of living – rational consumption, which ensures a person’s restoration of his physical and intellectual strength; poverty – consumption of goods at the level of maintaining working capacity; Poverty is the minimum consumption that allows one to maintain only human vitality.

There is a system of indicators in 7 sections, which covers both general (macroeconomic) indicators and specific (microeconomic):

1. General indicators of GNP and the GNP consumption fund per capita: the level of cost of living and its dynamics, current transfers, etc.

2. Income of the population: monthly (monetary and natural); total income, disposable, real, all types of income on average per capita, average nominal and real wages, average pension, scholarship, benefits.

3. Consumption and expenditures of the population: volume of consumption of material goods and services, monetary expenditures of the population, consumption of basic food products per capita, purchasing power of the average salary, pensions, structure of consumer expenditures of the population.

4. Cash savings in total and by type.

5. Accumulation of property and housing: the value of accumulated personal and household property, the presence of durable items in the property, living conditions.

6. Social differentiation of the population: distribution of the population by average per capita total income, consumption of basic food products, goods and services depending on income, structure of consumer spending of various social groups, cost of the consumer basket of various strata and the study of its dynamics, income concentration index (Gini).

7. Low-income segments of the population: living wage, minimum consumer budget, minimum wage, pensions, purchasing power of the minimum wage, pensions, poverty coefficient, social portrait of poverty, poverty zone.

The existing understanding of the essence of “standard of living” focuses on the fact that the standard of living is important not in itself, but in relation to the needs of the population.

The standard of living must be considered in conjunction with general economic indicators, as well as indicators connecting general economic indicators and the standard of living - income of the population, consumer demand, trade, prices, state budget, credit. For example, incomes of the population are key factors determining the standard of living.

It is necessary to identify components of the standard of living - certain types of human needs, the satisfaction of which is a major part of the standard of living as a whole (for example, nutrition, health, education). The set of components covers the entire sphere of human needs.

From these, a system of indicators of living standards is formed. According to the UN recommendation, the standard of living is measured by a system of indicators characterizing health, consumption levels, employment, education, housing, social security and others.

The productivity of workers, the price of labor, as well as its implementation in labor, that is, production, depend on the standard of living consumer goods. Development occurs in the direction of central overall performance. An increase or decrease in the standard of living of the population and labor productivity inevitably moves the economy forward or backward.

The subsistence minimum is a cost estimate of the total consumption of a person or family, determined on the basis of the minimum consumer basket. The “basket” gives the structure of consumption, expenses of the poor, and contains a set (minimum standards) necessary for physiological survival. This set and the living wage itself depends on the level of socio-economic development of the country and is adopted by the principle of distribution. Currently, this economic category does not make sense, since more than 40 million Russian citizens (30%) are far below the poverty line.

The consumer budget is the balance of income and expenses of the average family, characterizing the standard of living of various groups of working families.

The minimum consumer budget is formed on the basis of consumption traditions, market conditions for consumer goods and represents the subsistence level, calculated from average per capita income. Therefore, this is a comparatively higher standard of living.

To calculate the minimum subsistence level, the contents of the food basket are used.

The food basket (a set of food products for one person per month) is calculated on the basis of minimum food consumption standards that correspond to physical needs, kilocalories and ensuring compliance with traditional basic nutrition skills.

The cost of the minimum consumer basket, that is, its content in monetary terms, represents the minimum consumer budget.

The minimum consumer budget, or subsistence budget, is calculated per capita and for its main socio-demographic groups in the Russian Federation as a whole and in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

The subsistence budget is an indicator of the consumption of the most important material goods and services at a minimum level, calculated based on the minimum standards of consumption of the most important food products, goods and services. The most rational minimum consumer budget should maintain approximately the following proportions: food should be 41.1%, non-food products - 39%, services - 13.2%, taxes and fees - 2.7%.

§ 1 .2 Indicators and indicators of quality of life

Quality of life is a category with the help of which the significant circumstances of the life of the population are characterized, determining the degree of dignity and personal freedom of each person. The quality of life in modern concepts of quality abroad is understood as a comprehensive description of socio-economic, political, cultural-ideological, environmental factors and conditions of existence of the individual, a person’s position in society.

The category of quality of life was first introduced into scientific circulation in the 60s of this century in connection with attempts by foreign researchers to model trajectories industrial development. The development of the quality of life category was one way or another reflected in a number of publications abroad in the 80s.

In the 90s, the problem of protecting consumer rights and the interests of society is increasingly considered from the standpoint of quality of life, and this concept includes the provision of jobs, income that guarantees a certain level of well-being, a certain quality of medical care, and basic social services. In addition, quality of life implies the opportunity for all members of society to participate in life decisions. important decisions and taking advantage of the opportunities provided by social, economic and political freedoms.

Government work to determine and implement a given quality of life is carried out through the legislative introduction of quality of life standards (indices), which usually include three blocks of complex indicators.
First block of indicators quality of life characterizes population health and demographic well-being, which are assessed by levels of fertility, life expectancy, and natural reproduction.
Second block reflects the population’s satisfaction with individual living conditions (wealth, housing, food, work, etc.), as well as social satisfaction with the state of affairs in the state (fairness of government, accessibility of education and healthcare, security of existence, environmental well-being). To assess them, sociological surveys of representative samples from the population are used. An objective indicator of extreme dissatisfaction is the suicide rate.
Third block of indicators assesses the spiritual state of society. The level of spirituality is determined by the nature, range and number of creative initiatives, innovative projects, as well as by the frequency of violations of universal moral commandments: “thou shalt not kill,” “thou shalt not steal,” “honor thy father and mother,” “thou shalt not make thyself an idol,” etc. .
A partial analogue of the quality of life index, which has now become widespread and recognized, is the human development index or, in another translation, the human development index (HDI), used by the UN since 1990. Among the main components of the HDI are: average life expectancy at birth, the level of education of the population and real per capita gross domestic product, calculated taking into account the purchasing power parity of the national currency.

The diversity of the concept of “quality” of life is due to the variety of indicators.

The latter can characterize a single element of quality of life or the entirety. Relevant indicators include:

1.Health: the opportunity to lead a healthy lifestyle at all stages of the life cycle; the impact of health impairment on individuals;

2.Individual development through training: children’s acquisition of basic knowledge and skills, as well as values ​​necessary for their individual development and successful activities as a member of society; the opportunity to continue self-education and the ability to use these skills; the use and development by individuals of their knowledge, skills and mobility required to realize their economic potential and, if desired, enabling their integration into the economic process; the preservation and development of cultural development by the individual in order to contribute to the well-being of members of various social groups;

3.Employment and quality of working life: availability of profitable work for those who strive to get it; nature of work activity; an individual's satisfaction with their work life

4.Time and leisure: the ability to choose your pastime

5. Possibility of purchasing goods and using services: personal opportunity to purchase goods and use services; the number of people experiencing material deprivation; degree of equality in the distribution of goods and services; the quality, choice and availability of goods and services produced in the private and public sectors; protecting individuals and their families when faced with economic hardship;

6. Personal safety and legal authorities: violence, harassment, and harassment caused to an individual; fairness and humanity of legal authorities; the degree of trust an individual places in legal authorities;

And now I would like to compare the level of quality of life in the regions of the Russian Federation

The following factors were included in the comparative assessment of the quality of life of the population in the territories of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation:

· purchasing power of per capita cash income of the population;

· real per capita consumption of goods;

· real per capita consumption of paid services;

· provision of housing;

· state of the labor market;

· population mortality (an indicator that indirectly reflects the state of the ecological environment, well-being and a number of other factors).

As a result of factor analysis of this integral assessment, results were obtained characterizing the degree of differentiation of Russian regions according to individual structural components that determine the quality of life.

An assessment of the purchasing power of the population's cash income, real per capita consumption of goods and consumption of services was carried out taking into account regional levels of consumer prices.

As a comparative basis for conducting interregional assessments for all identified factors, average Russian data were taken.

The results of the assessment made it possible to group Russian regions according to the quality of life of the population

It can be noted here that the highest quality of life was noted in Moscow, as well as in some regions: Samara, Belgorod, Kemerovo, and Krasnoyarsk Territories, here the average quality of life is 15% higher. But there are other regions in which the quality of life is 45% lower than average, for example in such areas as: Pskov, Ivanovo, as well as in the Republics of Kalmykia and Dagestan. And the position of other regions can be seen in the application. (see Appendix 1).

§1.3 Social norms and needs.

Social standards play an important role in studying the standard of living of the population as scientifically based guidelines social processes in society. There are social norms; development of the material base of the social sphere, income and expenses of the population, social security and services, consumption of material goods and paid services by the population, living conditions, condition and security environment, consumer budget, etc. They can be level, expressing the absolute or relative value of the norm, respectively, in physical indicators or percentages (possible options for standards: momentary, interval, minimum, maximum), as well as incremental, presented as a ratio of increases in two indicators.

Directly related to the standard of living is the consumer budget, which summarizes the standards (norms) for the population’s consumption of material goods and services, differentiated by social and age groups of the population, climatic zones, conditions and severity of work, place of residence, etc. There are minimal and rational consumer budgets. In addition, the main social standards include: minimum wage and temporary disability benefits, unemployment benefits for able-bodied persons, minimum labor and social pensions for elderly and disabled citizens, disabled people, minimum scholarships for students, regular or one-time targeted benefits for the most financially vulnerable in relation to population groups (large and low-income families, single mothers, etc.).

Taken together, they form a system of minimum social guarantees as the duty of the state to provide citizens with minimum wages and labor pensions, the right to receive social insurance benefits (including unemployment, illness, pregnancy and childbirth, child care, low-income, etc. .), a minimum set of publicly available and free services in the field of education, health and culture. The core of social policy is the living wage, and all other social standards and guarantees must be linked to it.

Existing standards reflect modern scientific ideas about people's needs for goods and services - personal needs. However, the latter should not be absolute, since they are always changeable, which makes their quantitative assessment difficult. Personal needs reflect the objective need for a certain set and quantity of material goods and services and social conditions that ensure the comprehensive activity of a particular person. Personal needs are divided into physiological (physical), intellectual (spiritual) and social.

Physiological needs are determinative of the first order, since they express the needs of man as a biological being; in their composition, the urgent, primary needs are food, clothing, shoes, housing, rest, sleep, physical activity, etc.

Intellectual needs relate to education, advanced training, creative activity, generated internal state person.

Social needs are related to the functioning of a person in society - these are socio-political activities, self-expression, communication with people, ensuring social rights, etc.

Intellectual and social needs are not essential needs and are satisfied after a certain degree of satisfaction of primary needs occurs. They do not have a direct assessment, although they largely depend on the state of culture in society, general level and quality of life of the population. The conditions for their satisfaction are characterized by the time budget of the population. Based on the values ​​of working, non-working and free time, one can assess the effectiveness of working time and the ability to satisfy a person’s intellectual and social needs.

There are differences between rational (reasonable) and irrational needs. Rational needs correspond to scientific ideas about the consumption of goods and services necessary to maintain healthy image human life and harmonious development of personality. These are socially useful needs that are difficult to quantify. They can be determined conditionally with the help of rational norms and standards (except for rational norms of food consumption established on the basis of data from nutrition science). Irrational needs go beyond reasonable norms and take exaggerated, sometimes perverted forms, in particular in relation to nutrition.

The external form of manifestation of personal needs is the demand of the population, although both quantitatively and qualitatively it differs from the actual need. There is a distinction between general consumer demand, the volume and structure of which corresponds to the volume of consumption of material goods and services by the population, and effective demand for them, reflecting the solvent capabilities of the population.

Along with personal ones, there are social needs of society, determined by the need to ensure the conditions for its functioning and development, including production, needs for management, defense, environmental protection, etc.

Chapter 2. Population income: types, sources, formation

§2.1 Income distribution: concepts and views of economists.

The problem of income inequality among citizens has historically been one of the most important objects of economic theory. Many famous economists have analyzed it due to the high practical significance of this issue. Different views on the degree of fairness in the distribution of income have repeatedly generated debate in many countries. The criterion of justice, depending on place and time, is determined by multiple factors: the social status of the individual, his position, property and work. And yet, the consensus was to justify the need for a policy of income redistribution, in which the state was assigned an active role.

The problem of income distribution can be divided into many stages. The elementary origins of its study go back to the representatives of classical socialism in the 16th and 17th centuries - T. More and T. Campanella, who saw the desired future society based on the equal distribution of income and benefits. Physiocrat J. Turgot in his work “Reflections on the creation and distribution of wealth” (1776) developed the theory of the minimum means of subsistence for hired workers. He came up with the idea of ​​​​replacing taxes on peasants with taxes on nobles, promoting optimal distribution of income. A. Smith and the classical direction of economic thought were guided by the principle of dependence of the individual’s well-being on economic growth in the country.

According to A. Smith, “the pleasantness of the activity, ease of learning, prestige, success, compensate for the inequality” of social groups in terms of income level. Free competition, with the help of the “invisible hand,” harmonizes the individual aspirations of citizens to maximize personal well-being. The problem of poverty is solved by increasing national wealth, which ensures free enterprise. Therefore, there is no need for state intervention in the processes of income distribution. Taxation in the interests of low-income groups of the population. A. Smith considered it too difficult for the economy. Similar to A. Smith, some economists (S. Sismondi, T. Malthus) made the growth of poverty dependent on population theory. In his “Essay on the Law of Population” (1798), T. Malthus sees the cause of poverty in the relationship between the rate of population growth and the rate of increase in living goods. In accordance with this, poverty acts as a factor in reducing the number of citizens. In his opinion, social regulation is neutralized by an increase in the number of people. Consequently, taking care of one’s income is a function of the individual himself, not the state.

T. Malthus’s opponent on this topic was W. Godwin, who explored ways to achieve social equality with the help of “discoveries and inventions.” He argued that poverty and inequality are not natural phenomena at all, but diseases of society. W. Godwin pointed to the imperfection of English legislation at the end of the 18th century and the inability of transfer programs of that time to ensure a fair distribution of income.

Despite the diversity of views on the problem of income inequality, there has been no deep and thorough research on this topic. It was only in the middle of the 19th century that paths for a serious and detailed analysis of this issue began to be outlined.

The opinion that distribution relations are completely determined by the relations regulating production belongs to K. Marx. He linked the formation and distribution of income with the reproduction process and the exploitation of hired workers by the owners of the means of production. Marx noted that poverty and inequality are inherent in the capitalist system.

The next historical stage in the development of views on income distribution was characterized by the emergence of the theory of marginal utility. Representatives of the utilitarian approach believed that the utilities derived from income, depending on their level, are not the same. Different individual utility functions lead to differentiation of citizens by income due to natural and social differences between citizens.

A. Pigou analyzed the problem of inequality. In his work “The Economic Theory of Welfare,” he formulated the principle of achieving maximum benefits for the greatest number of people. Pigou proposed to achieve the highest level of well-being through a policy of equal distribution of income. His merit lies in considering the positive and negative aspects of income regulation. Thus, the policy of redistribution is fraught with danger negative impact on capital formation and economic activity. The result of income policy is that the overall satisfaction of the poor in society increases to a greater extent than the decline in the overall satisfaction of the rich. Pigou named taxation as the main method of regulating income.

The concept of V. Pareto occupies a prominent place in the development of the theory of income distribution. He identified the relationship between the level of income and the number of people receiving it. According to this “Pareto’s law”, the distribution of income at a low level can be subject to fluctuations, while at a high level it can be quite stable. If the number of people with incomes equal to or greater than X is N, then the relationship can be written as an equation: N=A:X-m, where A and m are the parameters of the equation. Pareto called the reason for this law the natural uneven distribution of citizens' abilities. Moreover, if the total amount of income grows at a faster rate than the increase in the number of people, it is likely that the differentiation of the population by income level will decrease.

The development of the foundations of the socio-economic theory of welfare was carried out by representatives of institutionalism (T. Veblen, W. Mitchell, D. Galbraith, J. Tinbergen, G. Myrdal). Galbraith sees the goal of economic reform in the formation of a “new socialism”, among the elements of which is the solution to the problem of poverty and inequality in income distribution. He writes: “An inordinate amount of national income goes to the tiny handful of people at the top of the ladder, and too little goes to those in the middle and low income categories.”

A holistic concept of state regulation of a market economic system was created by D. Keynes. He assigned an important role in his research to the problem of income inequality: “The most significant defects of economic society are its arbitrary and unfair distribution of wealth and income.” According to Keynes, the redistribution policy of the state in favor of low-income categories of the population will ensure effective demand and the propensity to consume in society, which in turn will expand production and reduce the unemployment rate. Such an economic justification for government influence on income distribution processes was quite new at that time. In addition, Keynes paid great attention to the analysis of ways to regulate income. He noted that the system of direct taxes, especially income and inheritance taxes, softens the stratification between rich and poor among the population. The difficulties of government intervention in generating revenue through taxation constitute the possibility of tax evasion. Another limiting factor is the need for capital growth. However, according to Keynes, the increase in the savings of organizations and institutions is much more significant than the wealth of wealthy people. Therefore, the policy of income redistribution can become effective in this case as well. Keynes argued: “Under modern conditions, the growth of wealth is not only not dependent on the abstinence of wealthy people, as is usually thought, but is most likely checked by it. One of the main social justifications for large inequalities in the distribution of wealth therefore falls away.” Keynes's theory became dominant after the “great depression of 1929–1933.” When state regulation of incomes took on a large scale in many countries, “a return from the social-dirigiste type of economic worldview to a liberal-individualist one became natural.”

The theory of rational expectations turned out to be such a school of modern economic trends (D. Muth, T. Lucas, L. Repping, E. Engel). Their views were that social programs are a function of private business and local authorities authorities. E. Engel is known for developing a theory indicating the dependence of the level of personal income and the structure of consumption expenditures. In accordance with it, a decrease in income involves using most of it for physical maintenance - the purchase of food, and of poorer quality. A smaller part is spent on spiritual development. Engel's theory is the basis for measuring the level of well-being. So, if a family spends more than 50% of its income on food purchases, then it is classified as poor.

2.1. Structure and dynamics of income of the population. Nominal and real incomes.

Income is understood as the sum of all types of income in cash or in the form of material goods or services received as payment for labor, as a result of various types of economic activity or use of property, as well as free of charge in the form of social assistance, benefits, subsidies and benefits.

The size and composition of income is one of the most important, although incomplete, characteristics of the standard of living of the population. The income of the population not only determines its financial situation, but also largely reflects the state and efficiency of the economy and economic relations in society.

In terms of material form, income is divided into cash and natural. Cash income of the population includes all receipts of money in the form of payments to working persons, income from business activities, pensions, scholarships, various benefits, income from property in the form of interest, dividends, rent, amounts from the sale of securities, real estate, agricultural products, livestock , various products and other goods (including sales on the informal market), income from various services provided to others, etc. In-kind income - all receipts of products produced by households for their own consumption: agricultural products, livestock breeding, poultry farming; various products, services and other products in kind, obtained from household plots, garden plots, personal farmsteads, household, self-procurement of gifts of nature intended to satisfy needs. When income is sold, part of it goes to the consumption of material goods, and part to the consumption of services. The structure of consumption is affected not only by an increase in monetary income, but also by a change in the structure of the population, an increase in its educational and cultural level. To characterize the well-being of the population, total income (of the entire population, family, individual), the growth of which at constant prices and taxes ( or, at least, their smaller increase compared to the increase in income) indicates an increase in the ability to satisfy needs. Total income is the main indicator of the material security of the population; it includes all types of cash income, as well as the value of in-kind income received from personal subsidiary plots and used for personal (household) consumption. In addition to the monetary component, total income includes the cost of free services received from federal and municipal budgets and enterprise funds. These are health services, education, preschool education children, subsidies for housing, transport, food, etc. It is necessary to distinguish between nominal, disposable and real income. Nominal income characterizes the level of monetary income regardless of taxation and price changes. Disposable income is nominal income minus taxes and other obligatory payments, i.e., funds used by the population for consumption and savings. To measure the dynamics of disposable income, the indicator “real disposable income” is used. Real disposable income (RDI) is calculated taking into account the price index, tariffs and represents the real purchasing power of nominal income. They are calculated as follows: RRR = (ND-NP) x Jpsd, where ND is nominal income (rub.); NP - taxes, obligatory payments (rub.); Jpsd is the index of the purchasing power of money (an indicator inverse to the price index). The disposable cash income of Russians increased in January-May 2007 by 12.0% year on year. Real disposable income of the population of Russia in April 2008, compared to the same period last year, is estimated to have increased by 11.3%, in January-April 2008 - by 11.8%. This data is provided today by the Federal State Statistics Service. The main source of income for most of the population long time there were incomes received in the form of payment for labor, i.e. wages. Wages are the price of labor services provided by hired workers of various professions in the implementation of their business activities or it is the price paid for the use of labor.

It is also necessary to distinguish between monetary, or nominal, and real wages. Nominal wage is the amount of money received per hour, day, week, etc.

The real wage is the amount of goods and services that can be purchased with a nominal wage; real wages are the "purchasing power" of nominal wages. Obviously, real wages depend on nominal wages and the prices of purchased goods and services

Real wage (RW) is determined as follows: RW = (WIP - NO) x Jpsd, where WIP is nominal wage (rub.); BUT - taxes, mandatory deductions from wages (rub.). The average monthly accrued nominal wage in April of this year, according to preliminary data, amounted to 16 thousand 253 rubles and increased by 28.1% compared to the same period in 2007. The amount of wages and the regularity of their payments largely determine the standard of living of the population and especially low-income parts of it. The timeliness of salary payments in general is one of the most important factors in the socio-political situation in Russia. Salaries vary across countries, regions, occupations, and individuals. Wage rates are significantly higher in the United States than in China or India. Wage rates are also differentiated by gender and race.

Statistics indicate that the overall level of real wages in the United States is one of the highest in the world. The most logical explanation for this is the fact that in the United States of America the demand for labor is higher in relation to its supply.

Dynamics of population income

Since 1995, by decision of the Government of the Russian Federation, All-Russian monitoring of the social and labor sphere has been carried out. Monitoring is introduced as government system continuous monitoring of the progress of basic social and labor processes to prevent and eliminate negative trends.

A separate area of ​​All-Russian monitoring is the income and standard of living of the population, and the main organization for their study is the All-Russian Center for Living Standards under the Ministry of Labor of Russia.

The study of income and living standards was carried out for Russia as a whole, in the context of regional population groups - for eleven consolidated economic regions and for the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, as well as for the following social wealth groups:

· poor population with incomes below the subsistence level;

· low-income population with incomes above the subsistence level, but below the minimum consumer budget (this income is approximately two subsistence levels);

· relatively wealthy (average income) population with incomes above the minimum consumer budget.

In general, for the Russian Federation, the main indicators of the standard of living of the population are presented in the table

Basic indicators,
characterizing the standard of living of the population. Table 1

1995 2000 2003 2005 2006 2007
Real GDP (% change) -2,9 6,4 7,3 7,2 6,4 6,5
Actual final consumption of households, million (1995 trillion rubles) 872 3813 7709 12381 15147 1844
Average per capita cash income of the population 515,9 2281 5170 8112 10196 12551
Average monthly nominal wage 472,4 2223 5498 8554 10633 13727
Real wages, as a percentage of the previous year 72 121 111 113 113 116
CPI (% annual change) 69,3 36.0 13,7 10,9 12.7 9.7
Average amount of assigned monthly pensions (1995 thousand rubles) 188 695 1637 2364 2726 3086
The cost of living (on average per capita) up to 2000 thousand rubles 264 1210 2112 3018 3422 3847
Funds ratio (income differentiation), in times 13,5 13,9 14,5 15,2 16 16,8
Average wage level ($.US) 101,6 179,4 237,2 301.9 420
Gini coefficient (income concentration index) 0,387 0,395 0,403 0,406 0,410 0,4416
Unemployment rate according to ILO,% 13 10.0 8,4 8,1 6.9 7,3
Source: Based on Rosstat data.

Since the 1998 crisis, the Russian economy has made impressive progress (see Table 1). High rates of economic recovery in 1995-2002. preserved in last years. As a result, in the period from 1998 to 2007. Russia's GDP increased by 57 percent, while real incomes grew by 65 percent. Unemployment fell from 14 percent at the end of 1998 to 8 percent at the end of 2003, reflecting an increase in employment of about 10 million people (almost 15 percent according to the Economic Activity Survey) between 1998 and 2003.

In the economic and statistical analysis of this table, the following can be noted. Both the population's income and its expenses continue to grow every year. But if in 2003 the difference between income and expenses was 967.7 billion rubles, in 2004 it increased 7.7 times, then in 2005 compared to 2004 it increased only 2.2 times. We see a clear trend towards a reduction in the difference between income and expenditure of the population.

The volume of monetary income of the population in 2004-2005 took into account mixed business income, in particular, participation in the profits of enterprises, income from the sale of goods on the unorganized market, including those imported from other countries.

In the structure of income in 2006, 39% was made up of wages, social transfers (pensions, benefits, scholarships) accounted for 17%.

In the structure of the use of cash income, the share of household expenses on the purchase of goods and payment for services has increased, with a slight decrease in the share for the purchase of foreign currency and the increase in money on hand.

§2.3 Essence and the reasons for differentiation of incomes of the population.

One of the sources of social tension in any country is the difference in the levels of well-being of citizens and the level of their wealth. The level of wealth is determined by two factors:

1) the amount of property of all types owned by individual citizens;

2) the amount of current income of citizens.

People receive income as a result of either creating their own business (becoming entrepreneurs) or providing their own factors of production (their labor, capital or land) for the use of other people or firms. And they use this property for production people need good This mechanism of income generation initially contains the possibility of income inequality. The reason for this:
1) different values ​​of factors of production owned by people (capital in the form of a computer, in principle, can bring more income than in the form of a shovel);
2) different success in using factors of production (for example, an employee in a company producing a scarce product may receive higher earnings than his colleague of the same qualifications working in a company whose goods are sold with difficulty);
3) different volumes of factors of production belonging to people (the owner of two oil wells receives, all other things being equal, more income than the owner of one well). Differentiation of income of the population - real-life differences in the level of income of the population, which largely determine social differentiation in society, the nature of its social structure. In countries with developed market economies, income level is one of the most important characteristics constituting social status (along with property, attitude to power, etc.)

The literature considers two interrelated approaches to studying the problem of income distribution: functional and personal income distribution.

Functional distribution income refers to the manner in which a society's monetary income is divided into wages, rent, interest and profit. Here the total income is distributed in accordance with the function performed by the recipient of the income. Wages are paid for work; rent and interest - for resources owned by someone else; profits go to the owners of corporations and other enterprises. The functional distribution of income forms the primary income of the population.

Personal distribution income refers to the way in which the total income of a society is distributed among individual households. Income differentiation, as a rule, is considered according to the size of the average per capita total income of the population as a whole, individual regions and groups of households (living in urban areas, in rural areas, including households of pensioners, with children under 16 years of age, etc.) In budget statistics households use the average monthly total income and average income per household member. Among those employed, the average monthly accrued wages of workers and employees by sector of the economy are taken as a basis (excluding part-time or weekly workers and students).

Indicators of differentiation of monetary income include: decile differentiation coefficient; fund ratio; Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient; contrast ratio. When calculating them, data on the incomes of extreme (poor and rich) groups of the population (decile coefficient, coefficient of funds, coefficient of contrasts) or the entire distribution of the population by income (Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient) are used.

Gini coefficient(G) Concentration factor income (index Jeanie) characterizes the degree of uneven distribution of the entire amount of income between individual groups of the population; its value can vary from 0 to 1, and the higher the value of the indicator, the more unevenly income is distributed in society.

The degree of inequality in income distribution is reflected Lorenz curve. The theoretical possibility of an absolutely equal distribution of income is represented by a bisector, which indicates that any given percentage of families receives a corresponding percentage of income (20% of all families receive 20% of total income, 40% - 40%, and 60% - 60%, etc.) . The actual distribution of income is shown by the line OABCDE. The more this line, or Lorenz curve, deviates from the OE line, the greater the inequality in income distribution. Absolute inequality means that 20%, 40%, 60%, etc. of the population do not receive any income, with the exception of one single person, the last in the row (line OF) person, who appropriates 100% of all income.

According to a sample survey by the State Statistics Committee of Russia, in 2003, the value of the Gini coefficient, characterizing wage inequality in enterprises, reached 48.3%, and the coefficient of differentiation of funds was 30. The values ​​of the corresponding indicators characterizing income inequality were 40% and 14.3 .

Fund differentiation coefficient allows us to reveal the depth of inequality. A sharp increase in its values ​​was observed in 1991-1992. Then, according to official data from the State Statistics Committee of Russia, the value given coefficient jumped from 4.5 to 12. Over the next 12 years, the coefficient increased by 2.8, reaching a value of 14.8.

Across the regions of Russia, its value varies over a wide range – from 8.4 in the Ivanovo region to 51.8 in Moscow. For comparison: the value of this indicator in 2000 in the USA was 15.7; Germany – 6.9; Italy – 11.7; Sweden - 6.2; Great Britain (1999) – 13.6; in France (1995) – 9.0.

The following reasons for income inequality are identified:

· differences in abilities;

· education and training;

· professional tastes and risk;

· ownership of property;

· market dominance;

· luck, connections, misfortune and discrimination.

The government plans to ensure a more equitable distribution of income by improving the system of individual taxation of income and property of citizens, introducing effective control over real income, including by checking the compliance of the amount of income declared by taxpayers with the expenses actually incurred by them.

What is the optimal degree of inequality? This is the most important question in defining a strategy to address income inequality. There is no generally accepted answer to this question. The literature provides arguments for and against increasing inequality. The main argument for equal distribution of income is that income equality is necessary to maximize consumer satisfaction, or marginal utility. The main argument for income inequality is that incentives for output and income need to be maintained.

Differential pay .

The differentiation in wages in various fields of employment is constantly increasing. Moreover, if before perestroika it was associated with the complexity of labor and its conditions, now - with the possibilities of extraction and processing of raw materials, the actual inclusion of rent in the wage fund, using the monopoly position of individual producers (see Appendix 3)

The level of remuneration for workers in the social sphere and science is especially low, as well as in agriculture. The low incomes of those employed in agriculture are associated with the disorganization of the management of this industry, with the low purchasing power of the main part of the population (it restrains prices). In addition, late payment for delivered products, failure to fulfill promises to allocate loans for sowing or harvesting campaigns, causes an artificial shortage financial resources.

Wages in mechanical engineering, where the most qualified personnel are concentrated in comparison with other industries, are constantly decreasing. At most enterprises in the industry, there has been a huge difference in the incomes of senior managers and other employees. As a result of incorrect economic measures during the years of reforms, working capital from enterprises was eliminated, domestic demand decreased due to the impoverishment of the main group of consumers and the cessation of investment. All this led to the degradation of many manufacturers of industrial products and, as a consequence, to a decrease in the standard of living of workers employed in the manufacturing industry. The differentiation of the Russian population by income level in 2007 once again increased slightly.

According to the Federal State Statistics Service, at the end of 2007, the 10% of the wealthiest Russians accounted for 30.3% of total cash income, while in 2006 - 30.0%, in 2005 -29.7%, and in 2004 – 29.6%. The 10% of the country's poorest population in 2007 accounted for only 1.9% of the total cash income of the population (in 2006 - 2.0%, in 2005 - also 2%, in 2004 - 2.1. In 2007 year, income from 2000 to 4000 rubles - 11.2% (16.9%), from 4000 to 6000 rubles - 14.8% (18.4%), from 6000 to 8000 rubles - 13.9% (15.1 %), from 8,000 to 10,000 rubles – 11.6% (11.3%), from 10,000 to 15,000 rubles – 19.7% (16.9%), from 15,000 to 25,000 rubles – 16, 8% (11.9%), over 25,000 rubles per month - 9.8% of the total population (5.2%).

§ 2.4 Economic methods of government intervention in income generation.

Article 7 of Chapter 1 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, adopted in 1993, states: “ Russian Federation– a social state whose policy is aimed at creating conditions that ensure a decent life and free development of people.” This means that the state assumes responsibility for the socially fair distribution of income of the population, which implies a wide variety of regulatory methods.

State income policy is defined as “their redistribution through the state budget through differentiated taxation of various groups of recipients of income and social benefits.” According to another opinion, the main components of state regulation of income are: the organization of social transfer payments and the establishment of certain prices for producers and buyers. In addition, minimum wage rates are established by law, state pension provision and various types of social insurance are provided; income indexation is carried out. The goal of implementing the redistribution policy can be called achieving humanization of relations in society, preventing the growth of crime, maintaining effective demand, and creating conditions for the normal reproduction of the labor force.

The degree of government influence on these processes is characterized to a large extent by the volume of social security expenditures and the progressiveness of tax rates. The process of changing the primary distribution of income accompanies the creation of a public good, which is manifested in the growth of well-being of the low-income and its decline among wealthy citizens. Such government action “influences the allocation of resources and the motives of economic activity.” Moreover, these effects can be caused, in addition to the main methods, by privatization and antimonopoly policy.

It must be said that in the field of state regulation of wages and prices, a redistribution of economic opportunities is observed: some individuals “gain an advantage, while for others, income opportunities are narrowed.”

The state budget plays a significant role as an income policy instrument. There are two categories of redistribution policy methods:

1. Limitations of the market regulatory mechanism (for example, government influence on wages).

2. Social compensation (transfer payments).

The following areas and methods of government influence on poverty and inequality in modern civilized countries are also distinguished: establishing a living wage by replacing all social benefit payments with a single negative income tax. It is important to determine the coefficient for reducing the rates of this type of tax as income grows. The advantages of the above-mentioned measure include providing incentives to work and eliminating the humiliating position of low-income groups in relation to the wealthy. However negative points come down to high administrative costs and increased rates income tax from the income of all categories of citizens. When implementing this method, it is necessary to search for an effective relationship between the minimum level of income and the size of social benefits.

The potential receipt of transfer payments is made conditional on a commitment to engage in labor activity. Social benefits are linked to the income level of the recipient. However, many economists have a negative attitude towards ensuring targeted social protection of citizens. Among their arguments are:

1. Large financial costs for identifying the poorest citizens

2. The impossibility of providing complete assistance to everyone in need.

3. Difficulties in determining the level of need.

4. The existence of “poverty traps”.

The humiliation of the process of checking material well-being for a citizen. And yet the listed points cannot be called too convincing. Indeed, in conditions of a lack of financial resources, the payment of social transfers without matching the level of income is not possible. At the same time, it is important to combine the principle of targeting with the provision of minimum social guarantees for other members of society. In general, government guidance in the field of income distribution is carried out using legal, administrative and economic methods. It is logical to include various types of benefits provided by law for low-income categories of the population as automatically built-in income policy stabilizers. Discretionary regulatory stabilizers include an increase in benefits and the appointment of additional social payments and benefits.

The effectiveness of implementing certain areas of income regulation in specific conditions depends on many circumstances, including side effects each of them. In particular, the introduction by the state of subsidies to the prices of certain goods, the costs of which are significant in the income of low-income categories of the population (for example, food) requires large financial expenditures. However, the consequence of using this method is not only to improve the material well-being of low-income groups of the population, but also to increase the income of producers of goods. Significant increase in the size of social transfer payments in the conditions market economy leads to an inflationary effect. Indeed, an increase in the income of some segments of society can cause an increase in market prices for food for all buyers. The result is a decline in the overall material well-being of consumers.

§2.5 Middle class in Russia

Russian economists and sociologists have refuted the myth about the growth of prosperity and the increase in the size of the middle class in Russia. According to their data, this stratum includes not 20–25% of our population, as official science believes, but about 7% of the population. At the same time, despite the success of the economy, the size of the middle class has stopped growing. But President-elect Dmitry Medvedev is confident that the share of the middle class in Russia could increase to 60-70% by 2020, that is, almost 10 times.

According to estimates by the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 million people, or about 20% of Russians, can be classified as middle class in Russia today. However, these data are not true. With this interpretation, families with $500 per capita fall into the middle class. monthly income and 21 sq. meter of total area, as well as half a car for everyone. The real middle class in developed countries ah, where to get into this layer you usually need a constant monthly income for each family member of 2–2.5 thousand dollars, at least 40 meters of total area and 2–3 cars per family.

Representatives of the middle class must, first of all, have a quality education, spend vacations away from home, and have access to quality paid services for yourself and children, have savings, etc.

The upper middle class in Russia is formed primarily in the field of management, financial services, as well as in the manufacturing and extractive industries. At the same time, over the years of reforms, Russia “exported” about 2 million citizens to developed countries, who successfully joined the upper middle class there.

The middle class in Russia - a stratum of the population with incomes from 500 to 3 thousand dollars per family member per month - has already taken shape and is increasing year by year. Different regions have their own idea of ​​the income of a wealthy person. Muscovites consider themselves middle class if their income is above $2,000 per family member. As a rule, the obligatory attributes of a metropolitan middle class representative are a summer house and an expensive car. In 2007, this amounted to 10% of Muscovites.

The number of high-income groups has grown significantly over the past year. Today there are 200 thousand families living in Russia with an income of over $1 million a year. In 2007 there were half as many of them - 100 thousand.
This is due, first of all, to the growing well-being of the Russian population. In addition, the strengthening of the ruble exchange rate also contributes to the growth of household incomes denominated in dollars.

§ 2.6 The problem of poverty in Russia and its indicators

Theoretically, poverty is the inability to maintain a certain acceptable standard of living. The age of the average poor person in Russia is 47 years old, while the average rich person is 33 years old, and a representative of the middle class is 42 years old. The poor also differ in the demographic composition of their households. Here, compared to the population as a whole, the proportion of large, single-parent, and other problem types of families is higher, in particular, multi-generation families with pensioners, disabled people and children at the same time. Only 37.8% of poor families do not have any economically inactive adult family member (whether retired or unemployed), while for the average Russian family this figure is 47.2%, and for a wealthy one - 80. 1%. . .

The level of poverty in a country is an important indicator of social status, which affects not only the perception of it public opinion, but also the formation of public policy. Since the poverty level is a measure of the well-being of a society, the reality in which every sixth Russian, according to official statistics, is classified as poor, is a matter of serious concern. In both rich and middle-income countries, poverty reduction is a priority, and its solution serves as an indicator of the success of the corresponding strategic development course. In the European Union, plans to reduce this phenomenon are formed within the framework of an open and transparent process carried out in each EU member state during the implementation of social inclusion plans. Some of the member states are developing specific action plans to reduce poverty: for example, in the UK since the early 1990s. There is a program to eradicate poverty among children.
In many member countries of the Organization economic cooperation and development, active measures are also being taken to reduce poverty, and the phenomenon itself is considered a key social problem, and reducing its scale is a targeted program for mobilizing efforts to combat it. Since the time of President Roosevelt, the United States has pursued poverty reduction policies and regularly monitored their implementation. Australia has significant experience in implementing a wide range of poverty reduction programs at the government level. Poverty reduction and active management of social risks associated with dynamic development activities are integral to the key policy commitments of the Chinese government. Similar programs are being implemented in middle-income countries, such as Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Thailand, Malaysia, and include both monitoring poverty levels at the national level and the development of large-scale social projects to eradicate extreme forms of poverty.
Analysis of panel survey data shows that half of Russian families in 1994–2003. periodically found themselves below the poverty line, and 7% were in a state of chronic poverty. The turning point came in 1998, when, due to the financial crisis, poverty in Russia rapidly spread and reached unprecedented proportions: by early 1999, over 70 million people lived on less than $4 a day, taking into account purchasing power parity. High rates of economic recovery 1999–2002 have survived to this day. As a result, between 1998 and 2006, Russia's GDP increased by 57%, and real income of the population - by 65%. Unemployment fell from 14% at the end of 1998 to 8% at the end of 2003, reflecting an increase in employment of about 10 million people (almost 15% according to the Economic Activity Survey) between 1998 and 2003.

Poverty indicators: 1) Now it is concentrated among the rural population (more detailed surveys indicate the absolute predominance of rural poverty);
2) It increasingly covers the population with an insufficient level of education;
3) Work still does not guarantee protection from poverty;
4) families with children face increased risk, and large families are typical representatives of the extremely poor segments of the population.
The gap between city and countryside continues to widen. Poverty in rural areas is more pronounced than in cities. According to official statistics, in 2004, in villages with a population of less than 200 people, the risk of poverty was three times higher than in megacities with a population of more than 3 million inhabitants. In 2005, over 51% of the total population classified as extremely poor already lived in rural areas (27% of the total population).
The number of unemployed in Russia in April 2008 increased by 4.2% compared to April 2007 and amounted to 5 million people, or 6.6% of the economically active population. Such data is contained in the operational report of the Russian Federation.
According to the report, in January-April 2008, unemployment decreased by 0.6% compared to the same period last year.
During the reporting period, 1.5 million people were registered as unemployed in state employment service institutions, including 1.2 million people receiving unemployment benefits.

In the first quarter of 2007, the number of Russian citizens with incomes below the subsistence level (3.7 thousand rubles) decreased to 16.3% of the total population. The general increase in living standards leads to some leveling of the poverty gap between regions. But the gap between rich and poor is not decreasing.

According to the study All-Russian Center standard of living (VCL), the poverty level in Russia is gradually decreasing. But regional differences and income differentiation are still extremely large. In Russia as a whole, the number of people with incomes below the subsistence level decreased from 18.9% in the first quarter of 2006 to 16.3% in the first quarter of 2007. The number of Russian citizens with incomes below the subsistence level will decrease by 2010 to 10.7%.
The cost of living in 2007 was 3,713 rubles. The least poor (living on less than this money) are in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug - 7.9%, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug - 8.6%, St. Petersburg - 10.2%. Contrary to popular belief about high Moscow earnings, the capital ranks sixth: 13.2% of Muscovites have incomes below the subsistence level.

§2.7 Social protection system for the population.

The social policy of the state is a complex of organizational, economic and other measures to improve the material well-being, spiritual and physical development of the population, and provide support to the disabled and low-income citizens.

The main components of the social protection system are:

1. protection from unemployment;

2. providing benefits for the disabled, disabled, and disadvantaged;

3. wages and benefits that ensure a normal lifestyle;

4. minimum provision of housing, cultural services, healthcare, education, etc.

Social protection of the population is manifested in various forms such as social insurance, government transfers, indexation, etc. Social transfers is a system of measures of monetary or in-kind assistance to those in need, not related to their participation in economic activity. Income indexation mechanism associated with an increase in nominal income of the population depending on rising prices. This mechanism can only be used in the public sector. Social insurance is a type of social protection aimed at providing social guarantees to protect citizens from social and professional risks. State social insurance includes pensions, compulsory medical insurance (CHI), payment of state social insurance benefits in case of unemployment, disability, etc.

Currently, the main work on social protection of the population is carried out by the following bodies:

1. Government bodies social protection of the population;

2. Specialized public and professional organizations;

3. Non-state commercial structures;

4. Charity and charity foundations;

5. Religious organizations;

6. Professional organizations teachers, lawyers, social workers;

7. Political parties and social movements.

To achieve these goals, it is necessary to restore the role of income from core activities as the main source of income for the population; ensure equitable distribution of income by increasing the tax burden for persons with high incomes and reducing the burden for persons with low incomes; stimulate financing of social programs not only from budgetary funds; create a system of targeted social assistance, taking into account financial situation family and the declarative principle of assigning benefits; increase the role of social insurance to guarantee citizens access to medical care; social services, education and culture.

In the area of ​​wages, the Russian government plans to ensure an increase in real wages in accordance with the qualifications and results of the employee’s work. Reforming wages should be carried out using economic methods, through the tax system. The mechanism of social partnership between entrepreneurs and employees should also be used. In the extra-budgetary sphere, it is necessary to create a system of guaranteeing minimum earnings, strengthen state regulation of wages for managers of state, government, municipal enterprises, enterprises with mixed form property, as well as tighten liability for violation of labor laws. In the public sector, it is necessary to increase wage rates, while taking into account the increase in wages in the non-budgetary sector of the economy.

The situation on the labor market has changed significantly over the years of economic reforms: unemployment has increased, the structure of employment by industry and sector of the economy has changed. There is a difficult situation regarding the employment of women and youth. To overcome negative phenomena in the employment sector, it is necessary: ​​to implement a balanced investment and tax policy, to make fuller use of existing jobs plus the creation of new ones; development of a master plan for job development; development special programs to stabilize employment in regions and industries; development of new flexible forms of employment; a complete overhaul of the benefit system; new ways for the unemployed to find work; creation of social programs aimed at expanding the employment of certain social groups (youth, disabled people, etc.).

Conclusion

Forecasting the standard of living and social protection of the population is an important function of the state. The market itself cannot regulate this area, so the responsibility for regulation in this area rests with the state. Ill-conceived government policy in this area can lead to increased social tension.

The income of the population determines the social position in society, and the level of income of each person depends on the economy of the country in which he lives. Thus, the implementation of effective redistribution of income should be carried out through the development of government programs that provide for specific measures, primarily in the field of regulating citizens' incomes, fair taxation and improving the social protection system for citizens.

According to the course work, we can say that the standard of living of the Russian population is constantly changing.

Based on this, a number of conclusions can be drawn:

Firstly, the income and expenses of the population are growing every year, the difference between income and expenses is decreasing.

Secondly, with the help of economic and statistical analysis, it is possible to study the provision of the population with social benefits, that is, whether in a particular region of Russia there are enough healthcare workers, medical institutions, and also whether there is the required number of recreation institutions, theaters, museums necessary to maintain a high cultural level of the Russian population.

Lastly, an economic and statistical analysis of the standard of living of the Russian population is carried out in order to improve certain living conditions of the population.

The most important priority of government policy in the social sphere is to increase investment in human capital, primarily education and healthcare. Since 2000, every year within the federal budget the amount of funds allocated to these areas has increased. In this regard, one of the most important measures in education will be to increase the efficiency of using funds allocated for education from budgets at all levels.

In the field of social support, among the most important priorities of the Government were and remain reducing poverty, ensuring effective protection of socially vulnerable families who do not have the ability to independently solve social problems, increasing the efficiency of social services for the population, and solving problems of homelessness. In 2007, the Government policy in this area was aimed at increasing real income, support for low-income families - wages of state employees and pensions of pensioners were repeatedly indexed.

In general, it is difficult to overestimate the role of the state in the economy. It creates conditions for economic activity, provides social protection for low-income groups of the population and promotes the development of market relations, which has a positive effect on measuring the quality of life of the population.

Bibliography

1. Labor Economics: textbook/ed. Vinokurov, Gorelov, 2004.-655 p.

2. Vasiliev A. L. Quality of life and standardization: social and political literature/A. L. Vasiliev, 2003.-440 p.

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Annex 1

Groups Regions

high quality of life (above average by more than 15%)

5 REGIONS

Moscow city; regions: Samara, Belgorod, Kemerovo; Krasnoyarsk region

increased quality of life (above average by 5+15%)

6 REGIONS

Saint Petersburg; regions: Tyumen, Ulyanovsk; Republic of Tatarstan; Primorsky and Stavropol Territories

III GROUP

average quality of life (with deviations from the Russian average +5+-5%)

17 REGIONS

regions: Smolensk, Voronezh, Novosibirsk, Vologda, Omsk, Kursk, Ryazan, Magadan, Tula, Kaluga, Chelyabinsk, Lipetsk, Oryol; the republics of Khakassia, Sakha (Yakutia), Bashkortostan; Krasnodar region

quality of life close to average (below average by 5+15%)

15 REGIONS

from the region: Volgograd, Kamchatka, Rostov, Irkutsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Orenburg, Tver, Sverdlovsk, Moscow, Murmansk, Tomsk, Perm, Tambov; Altai Territory and the Republic of Buryatia

reduced quality of life (below average by 15+25%)

13 REGIONS

regions: Novgorod, Saratov, Bryansk, Amur, Kaliningrad, Chita, Astrakhan, Sakhalin; the republics of Kabardino-Balkaria, Adygea, Komi, Mari El; Khabarovsk region

low quality of life (below average by 25+30%)

10 REGIONS

1 republic of Karachay-Cherkessia, Karelia, Tyva, Chuvashia, Udmurtia, Mordovia; regions: Kostroma, Yaroslavl, Arkhangelsk, Leningrad

VII GROUP

increased social tension (below average)

5 REGIONS

regions: Penza, Kurgan, Kirov, Vladimir; North Ossetian Republic

VIII GROUP

critical social situation (below average by more than 45%)

4 REGIONS

Republics of Kalmykia, Dagestan; regions: Pskov, Ivanovo

Appendix 2

2003 2004 2005 2006
Income :

Billion rubles

in % to the previous year
Expenses:

for the purchase of goods and payment for services

billion rubles

in % to the previous year

Mandatory payments and voluntary contributions

billion rubles

in % to the previous year

Accumulation of savings in deposits and securities

billion rubles

in % to the previous year

Buying currency

billion rubles

in % to the previous year

Excess of cash income over expenses:

billion rubles

in % to the previous year

Standard of living - the totality of living conditions (work, life, leisure) of the country's population corresponding to the achieved level of economic development. It is a general characteristic of the economic situation of the population. Used in marketing work to identify potential demand. The standard of living is determined by income, accumulated material property (including housing, durable and everyday items) and the number of social services provided by the state free of charge (education, medical care). The standard of living cannot be expressed using one criterion. To measure it, a system of quantitative indicators is used, the most important of which is the living wage, as well as many others.

  • 1. Cash income of the population per person or family. Monthly income is compared with the subsistence level, which is calculated based on a person’s consumption of the minimum necessary set of goods and services. This set is called a consumer basket.
  • 2. The structure and level of consumption of the main types of goods in physical terms per person, or one family of four people per year - These are consumed food products, clothing, shoes, provision of living space, durable goods, schools, kindergartens, hospitals. In order to make an assessment, actual consumption is compared with standard consumption.
  • 3. Public consumption funds. These are benefits provided by the state to the population free of charge or for a limited fee (health care, education, preschool education).
  • 4. Property and monetary savings. A person’s standard of living is judged not only by the level of today’s income, but also by the savings that he was able to make.
  • 5. Average future life expectancy, morbidity rate, child and general mortality.
  • 6. Amount of free time. It is compared with working or full time. For workers, this is the length of the working week.
  • 7. Income and prices allow us to judge the level of current consumption in a deficit-free market. In conditions of a decline in production and high inflation, these indicators are not used, since even without them it is clear that things are bad.
  • 8. Share of mechanized and automated labor in total labor costs.

A number of other indicators are also used to measure living standards.

The level of consumption of the entire population of the country can be increased in only one way - to increase one’s own production, and incl. through the import of some goods instead of exporting their own. Ideas about the standard of living change over time and are associated not only with the level of income of the population, but also with the level of its culture and other components.

The quality of life- a comprehensive description of people’s living conditions and their satisfaction with these conditions. This generalized concept applies to all aspects of life: satisfaction with available material and intangible benefits, the ability to adapt to modern requirements, painlessness and life expectancy.

In economic science, a unified system of indicators for assessing the quality of life has not been formed. Quality of life is both an abstract and concrete category that cannot be characterized only in quantitative terms. This is also a philosophical concept associated with a person’s worldview. When assessing the quality of life, in addition to objective indicators, subjective perception is taken into account: satisfaction with work and living conditions, social status, financial situation and family relationships.

The quality of life depends on the level of a person’s well-being and level of culture, the level of socio-economic development of the person’s country of residence. Each person determines his quality of life using generalized verbal expressions for characterization - high, average, satisfactory, low.

The UN assesses the economic and social progress of countries around the world based on an indicator called the Human Development Index (HDI). Human Development Index is a cumulative indicator of the level of human development in a country, so it is sometimes used as a synonym for such concepts as “quality of life” or “standard of living.” The index measures the country's achievements in terms of health, education and actual income of its citizens, in three main areas:

  • 1) health and longevity, measured by life expectancy at birth;
  • 2) access to education, measured by the expected duration of education for school-aged children and the average duration of education for adults;
  • 3) standard of living, measured by gross national income (GNI) per capita expressed in US dollars at purchasing power parity (PPP), which allows for income from remittances and international development assistance.

These three dimensions are defined as numeric values ​​between 0 and 1; their geometric mean expresses an aggregate HDI score ranging from 0 to 1. States are then ranked based on this score.

The UN report for 2013 presents the following data. Norway tops the quality of life ranking with an HDI of 0.955. The life expectancy level in this state is one of the highest in the world - 81.3 years, GNI per capita - S 48,700 per year (at purchasing power parity, expressed in constant international dollars). There are practically no poor people here, and the so-called “class” differences are very weakly expressed. The well-being of the population largely depends on the oil, gas and oil refining industries, since Norway is the largest producer and exporter of hydrocarbons in Western Europe. The country traditionally has low inflation and unemployment compared to the rest of Europe, but at the same time it is one of the most expensive countries peace.

From among the states former USSR the highest HDI in the Baltic countries: Estonia ranks 33rd, Latvia - 41, Lithuania - 44. The Russian Federation ranks 55th in the 2013 ranking with an HDI of 0.788. The main indicators of Russia are as follows: average life expectancy at birth - 69.1 years; the average duration of education is 11.7 years; gross national income per capita is $14,461 per year. Russia's performance is negatively affected by social inequality, ecological problems, as well as low life expectancy. The authors of the study indicate that in Russia there is a very strong emphasis on the use of natural resources, rather than on economic diversification, which could seriously affect the sustainability and stability of human development in the coming years. It should be noted that Russia, however, is still ahead of its BRIC neighbors in the ranking. Among the largest countries with rapidly growing economies, Brazil ranks 85th in the ranking, China - 101st, and India - 136th.

Among the states of the former USSR, along with Russia are: Belarus (50th place), Kazakhstan (69th), Georgia (72nd), Ukraine (78th), Azerbaijan (82nd) ​​and Armenia (87th).

  • http://gtmarket.ni/news//2013/03/14/5622

Indicators of population quality.

No. Index Likely socio-economic consequences
1. Total fertility rate (average number of children born to a woman during her reproductive age) 2,14 – 2,15 No simple replacement of generations
2. Conditional depopulation coefficient (the ratio of the number of deaths to the number of births) 1,0 – 1,3 Intensive depopulation: mortality exceeds birth rate
3. Life expectancy at birth 69 years old – men; 77 years old – women Declining vitality of the country's population
4. Infant mortality (number of children who died before one year old, per 1000 births) Reducing the number of children
5. Maternal mortality (per 100,000 births) Deterioration of newborn health, orphanhood
6. Number of mental pathologies (per 100,000 population of the corresponding age) Indicator growth Deteriorating health of the nation
7. Population incidence of tuberculosis (per 100,000 population of the corresponding age) 35.0 (epidemiological threshold) Deteriorating health of the nation
8. Incidence of the population with sexually transmitted diseases (per 100,000 population of the corresponding age) Indicator growth Deteriorating health of the nation
9. Level of alcohol consumption per capita, liters 8,0 Degradation of the nation

Table 2.

No. Index Limit critical value
1. Standards of living:– population with incomes below the subsistence level as a percentage of the total population
– the ratio of cash incomes of the 10% most and 10% of the least affluent population, times
– level of social unemployment, %
– the ratio of average wages to the cost of living 2,1
2. The quality of life:– health care expenditures as a percentage of GDP
– expenditure on culture as a percentage of GDP
– housing supply, sq.m.
– number of crimes per 1000 population
– natural population growth per 1000 inhabitants 3-8

Maternal and child health in Russia continues to deteriorate; 20% of preschoolers and 50% of adolescents suffer chronic diseases, only 15% of school graduates are practically healthy.

According to experts, over 70% of the country’s population lives in a state of prolonged psycho-emotional and social stress, causing growth depression, neuroses, reactive psychoses, psychosomatic diseases, as well as alcoholism, drug addiction, antisocial outbursts. Over the past 10 years in Russia, the number of people sick mental illness, increased by 1.5 times. The greatest increase in incidence is observed in children and adolescents: among them, over 10 years, the number of mentally ill people has increased by 2.5 times, and those with oligophrenia - by 24%. According to the Institute of Human Brain of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 15% of children have mental health problems preschool age, 25% of teenagers and up to 40% of conscripts. The incidence of drug addiction is growing rapidly: in 1999 compared to 1990, it increased 14 times, almost 4 million people in Russia tried drugs, and 2.5 million people. consume them regularly. More than 2 million citizens are registered in special institutions for alcoholism; alcohol consumption per capita was 14-15 liters.



Trends and patterns of morbidity in the population are causing active growth disability. As of January 1, 1999 the total number of disabled people was 9.8 million people, of which 600 thousand were children under 16 years of age. Since 1996, the increase in disabled people has reached 1 million people. in year.

A comprehensive indicator of the health and vital activity of the population is average life expectancy. In Russia, in comparison with developed countries, it is 10-15 years less for men, and 6-8 years for women. Moreover, the dynamics of this indicator in developed countries is extremely positive, in contrast to our country (22, p. 71).

The demonstrated unfavorable changes in the public health of the population are possible only with a significant decrease in the quality of life, the unsatisfactory state of the social sphere, basic medicine and the absence of appropriate social policy.

The above-mentioned indicators are also associated with such an important socio-demographic indicator as infant mortality rate(i.e. the number of deaths of children under 1 year of age per 1000 births). The infant mortality rate in the Russian Federation significantly exceeds the level of industrialized countries, as well as the threshold values ​​of indicators characterizing national security. Only the CIS member countries “lag behind” Russia in this indicator. The infant mortality rate in our country in 1990 was 17.4; in 1999 – 16.9. According to the regions of Russia, this indicator in 1999 varies significantly: from 10.1 in the Samara region, 10.7 in St. Petersburg to 22.8 in the East Siberian region and over 30 in the republics of Ingushetia and Tyva.

It is necessary to touch upon another important indicator that reflects the state of public health and quality of life of the population. This is the so-called maternal mortality ratio, showing the frequency of deaths in women associated with pregnancy, during childbirth and within 6 weeks after childbirth. In our country it is at the level of developing countries and 5-10 times higher than in Western European countries, and even higher than some CIS countries (for example, Belarus 2.3 times).

The next indicator characterizing the qualitative potential of the population is mortality rate. If at the turn of the 80-90s. The overall mortality rate of the population in the Russian Federation was at the average European level (10.7 ‰), but in 1999 it significantly exceeded the level of all developed European countries (14.7 ‰).

The most affected by premature mortality in the 90s. group is the working-age population, which has led to an increase in the overall mortality rate. If in older ages mortality increased slightly (by 3-16%), then in the working age the increase in mortality was 35-70% with a maximum in men in the range of 20-44 years, in women in 20-34 years. From 1990 to 1999 the number of deaths in working age men increased by 41.4%, women - by 43.3%. At the same time, the mortality rate of men of working age is 4 times higher than that of women, i.e. The excess mortality rate of men in Russia has reached extraordinary proportions. In the 90s, age-specific mortality rates for men aged 20-44 years were 4 times higher, for those aged 45-64 years – 3 times higher, for those aged 15-19 and 65-69 – 2 times higher than the age-specific mortality rates for women.

In international comparisons of male mortality rates, the most informative and socially significant indicator is living to 60 years of age, and expected duration value life at birth. The difference in life expectancy between men and women in the country as a whole is now 12 years. Such a large gap exists only in the CIS countries (Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan). For the whole world, the average difference is 4 years, in developed countries – from 5 to 8 years. Lifespan Russian men decreased in recent years and amounted to 2000. 58.9 years; in a number of constituent entities of the Russian Federation this figure does not exceed 55-56 years. Life expectancy is directly related to the level of socio-economic development of the country and region. This indicator in the group of developed countries in 1997. was 74.5 years for men and 80.9 years for women, in the most backward countries - 50.8 and 52.6, respectively. Compared to developed countries, the life expectancy of men in Russia is 14-16 years lower, and that of women by 8-9. At the same time, the life expectancy of men in Russia is 8 years shorter than in China and 2.5 years less than in India.

It can be stated that as a result of the changes that have occurred, Russia is approaching the countries of the “third world” not only in terms of the level, but also in the structure of mortality. By the end of the twentieth century, the country had developed a mortality structure in which the contribution of diseases caused by social stress decreased (i.e., the mortality rate from cardiovascular diseases and cancer decreased). However, the proportion of deaths from diseases caused by the spread of poverty and the degradation of the health care system has increased. Thus, mortality from infectious diseases (mainly due to tuberculosis), diseases of the digestive system and mental disorders (due to alcoholism) is growing at a high rate.

Another important indicator of population quality is education. The opportunity to receive a quality education that meets the needs of the individual and society is one of the most important conditions human existence. The transformations taking place in Russian society over the last decade have led to significant changes in the education system. Experts note an absolute increase in the number of pupils and students, which is partly explained by the demographic wave of the early 80s. For 1992-1999 the number of students increased by 1.5 times, the number of students in lyceums and gymnasiums increased almost 10 times. Positive trends include the growing demand for higher education in the Russian Federation - in 1999. per 10 thousand people There were 279 students in the population, which is 1.6 times more than in 1992. In terms of the number of students (208 people per 10,000 people), Russia is in the group of developed countries. However, at the same time, the share of people receiving vocational training decreased: the output of people receiving working specialties decreased by 38.3%, and the number of secondary specialized educational institutions- by 374 units.

Having described above a significant part of the indicators describing the quality of the population, it is now necessary to consider indicators reflecting level and quality of life of the population in Russia and abroad.

The quality of life of the population is a complex integral indicator, including qualitative and quantitative indicators characterizing the degree of satisfaction of the material and spiritual needs of people:

* standard of living of the population (average per capita income, wages, income from business activities, pensions, benefits);

* the amount of goods consumed per capita (food, clothing and shoes, refrigerators, televisions, etc.);

* indicators of spiritual culture and ecology (level of education, culture, healthcare, ecology, social protection);

* indicator of the quality of working life of the working population.

The main indicators of the quality of life of the population include:

1) Financial and economic indicators(national wealth, income and expenses of the population, prices and inflation). National wealth per capita, if calculated as the sum of capitalized value and surplus product, is one of the main comparative indicators. Income level(i.e. standard of living) of the population includes a set of indicators characterizing monetary income per capita from various sources, the cost and structure of the subsistence minimum, as well as the volume of gross internal product and external debt per capita.

2) Medical and environmental indicators(health and medicine, nutrition, physical education and tourism, ecology and environment, family). They characterize the life activity, ecology and health of the population. This group of indicators indicates the “health of the nation” (through demographic indicators of average life expectancy, fertility, mortality, morbidity), expenditures on health care and physical education. Environmental indicators indicate the level of pollution of the environment as a human habitat. Family well-being is assessed by marriage and divorce rates.

3) Indicators of material well-being(labor and employment, housing and utilities, transport and communications, trade and consumer services, scientific and technical progress and production). This group of indicators reflects the level of employment and the degree to which the population's needs for goods are met, as well as the development of productive forces in sectors of the economy focused on the production of consumer goods. They characterize the living conditions of the population in the form of housing per capita, availability of durable goods, telephone installation and gasification.

4) Indicators of spiritual well-being(education, culture, social security, personal safety and crime, politics and social activity). These indicators characterize the social life of society and the satisfaction of spiritual needs based on an assessment of the level of education, culture, science, social life, trust in authorities, crime, and the state of the family.

About the standard of living of the population and his material well-being can be judged by the following indicators: the average per capita monetary income, the average wage, the minimum subsistence level, the unemployment rate, etc.

According to the Ministry of Labor and the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation, the quality of life of the Russian population in 2002 was characterized by the following indicators. So, cost of living per capita in the country, the average for the 2nd quarter of 2002 was 1804 rubles, which is 19.7% more than in the 2nd quarter of 2001. Cost of a minimum set of food items the average for Russia in the first half of 2002 was 986.7 rubles. Compared to the beginning of the year, its value increased by 10.7%.

During the first half of 2002, growth consumer prices and tariffs for goods and services to the population(those. inflation rate) amounted to 9.8%.

Average per capita cash income population in the first half of 2002 amounted to 3269 rubles, which is 31.7% more than the average for the 1st half of 2001. Real disposable cash income in the 1st half of 2002 amounted to 107.9% compared to the 1st half of 2001, and in November 2002 compared to the same period of the previous year increased by 7.7%.

Accrued average monthly salary employee in June 2002 amounted to 4,522 rubles and increased by 37.8% compared to June 2001, and in November of this year amounted to 4,785 rubles and increased by 34% compared to November 2001. In October 2002, the level of accrued average wages for healthcare workers. physical education and social security amounted to 56% of its level in industry, and workers in education, culture and art - 53% each. Real average wage in June 2002 amounted to 120.1% compared to June 2001.

Average amount of assigned monthly pensions(including compensation) in June 2002 amounted to 1,341 rubles and increased by 31.6% compared to June 2001. Real amount of accrued monthly pensions in June 2002 amounted to 99.8% compared to May 2002.

Cash income of the population in June 2002 amounted to 525.43 billion rubles. and increased by 22% compared to June 2001, cash expenditures of the population– respectively 499.0 billion rubles. and 23% (26, p. 25).

For the stability of the social structure of society, what is important is not the fact of how much or how little the rich (poor) receive, but degree of income redistribution between segments of the population. In terms of income distribution by population groups, Russia belongs to the group of countries with an extremely high degree of income differentiation, close to Latin American countries. In terms of income distribution inequality, Russia is second only to Brazil, Chile and Mexico.

Among the indicators that reflect the level of socio-economic development of a country, a special place is occupied by an indicator that can be considered a comprehensive characteristic of the state of economic and social conditions that have developed for the lives of people in a particular country. This indicator is human development index (HDI), or aggregate human development index (HDI), which was developed by specialists from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in 1990 on the basis of three main components characterizing human development: longevity, education, income.

Typically, the index is the arithmetic average of the 3 most visual indicators of living standards - index of achieved education of the population, life expectancy index at birth And index of real per capita GDP, calculated taking into account the purchasing power parity (PPP) of currencies different countries . Some authors include four components in the HDI: they add adult literacy rate And average duration of education in the country, i.e. completeness of education coverage in primary, secondary and higher schools (instead of an education level index). The opinions of some authors (regarding the inclusion of the infant mortality rate when calculating the component reflecting life expectancy) are worthy of attention.

The Human Development Index is measured using relative indicators, which are expressed in the range from 0 to 1. In this case, a maximum and a minimum are established for each of the three components, and the actual situation is correlated with these criteria. According to the first of the components - life expectancy at birth– accepted as a minimum of 25 years and a maximum of 85. The second component indicator is accessibility of education– calculated from the following subcomponents:

A) adult literacy(in %) – minimum value 0, maximum – 100%;

b) average duration of study calculated as the sum of the number of years of education (for those with higher education, incomplete higher education, specialized secondary education, general secondary education, incomplete secondary education, those who do not have incomplete secondary education) per 1000 adults and per 1 person;

V) summary indicator of access to education calculated by weighting the literacy rate (with a two-thirds weight) and the average years of schooling (with a one-third weight).

The third component indicator is adjusted average annual income (in US dollars). The minimum value of the indicator is $200, the maximum is $40,000.

The Human Potential Index ranks countries (and regions) based on a comparison of the actual situation with the best and worst performance. The index value can vary from 0 to 1, while the closer it is to 1, the higher the development of human potential and, consequently, the higher the socio-economic standard of living in the country. Countries with an HDI value greater than or equal to 0.800 are classified as countries with a high level of human development. The group of countries with medium and low levels of human development includes, respectively, states with an HDI value ranging from 0.500 to 0.799 and less than 0.500.

An analysis of trends in economic growth rates and social components of the HDI shows that over the past decade, life in many countries of the world has become more prosperous. Of the 174 countries for which the UN Human Development Index is calculated, in most countries the average life expectancy has increased, the proportion of the population receiving education has increased, and positive trends in GDP dynamics have been observed.

According to UNDP estimates, in 1997. The first three places in terms of HDI were occupied by Canada, Norway and the USA. The top ten countries with the highest human development index scores, in addition to the above, included (according to 1997 data) Japan, Belgium, Sweden, Australia, the Netherlands, Iceland and the UK (see Table 7, 8). The list was completed by countries with the lowest level of human potential – Ethiopia, Niger and Sierra Leone, whose development indicators are almost three times lower than in countries from the top ten. The noted significant deterioration in living conditions in a number of African countries is caused by increased political conflicts, declining incomes and the spreading AIDS epidemic. Some states are in a difficult situation of Eastern Europe and CIS countries undergoing fundamental economic transformations. The CIS states in this list are ranked as follows: Belarus – in 60th place, Russia – in 71st, Kazakhstan – in 76th, Georgia – in 85th, Armenia – in 87th, Ukraine – in 91st, Uzbekistan – in 92nd, Turkmenistan – in 96, Kyrgyzstan – at 97, Azerbaijan – at 103, Moldova – at 104, Tajikistan – at 108.

According to UNDP estimates, the HDI in Russia for the period 1992-96. fell by more than 40 points. Our country moved from 26th place (1990) to 67th (1996), and in 1997 to 71st place, essentially closing the group of countries with an average level of human potential. According to UNDP, in 2001 Russia rose to 60th place. Norway became the leader in terms of human development, while the United States dropped to 6th place. Some improvement in the situation was also observed in a number of countries in Eastern Europe and the CIS: the Czech Republic took 33rd place, Hungary – 35th, Slovakia – 36th, Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia and Belarus – 37th, 42nd, 49th, 53rd and 56th places respectively. In terms of life expectancy (just over 65 years), Russia ranked 100th out of 162 countries in 1999.

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